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Mycotoxins and Their Effect on Poultry and Swine Production

By
Jim
-

Feed grains contaminated by mycotoxins hurt feed quality and are detrimental to production in poultry and swine. Some key mycotoxins can induce differential impacts on poultry and swine production performance.

Mycotoxins and Their Effect on Poultry and Swine Production

Corn field, photo by Elizabeth Hines

It is not a secret that animal feed containing mycotoxins will negatively impact production. During wet years, mycotoxins are very likely to be present in your grain products. Most animal systems are affected by a large dose of a single mycotoxin or a combination of many mycotoxins. This bulletin highlights the damage that mycotoxins can have on the digestive, immune, and reproductive systems of poultry and swine.

Fact 1: Mycotoxin exposure can cause direct damage to the digestive tract.
 Intestinal disturbances, regardless of source, are often linked to reduced growth performance and reduced feed efficiency. Trichothecene mycotoxins can induce necrosis in the oral mucosa, esophagus and gastric compartments. Fumonisin mycotoxins often have extended periods of exposure time to the intestinal tissues due to poor absorption. The extended contact contributes to direct cellular damage, resulting in intestinal inflammation and diarrhea. In addition to the direct damage to the intestinal tract, ochratoxins and aflatoxins produce severe damage to the liver, which plays a fundamental role in the digestion and mobilization of nutrients after they are absorbed in the intestine.

Fact 2: Mycotoxin exposure decreases the ability of the digestive tract to digest and absorb nutrients.
In poultry, the intestinal tract is relatively short, making villi the main structures responsible for amplifying intestinal surface area for absorption of nutrients. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Fusarium mycotoxins can shorten the intestinal villi in broilers and poults. Intestinal secretions and activity of enzymes responsible for the digestion of nutrients can be also affected by some toxins and thus contribute to decreased digestive ability. In swine, the impact of feeding mycotoxins can occur quickly; in one instance, after feeding mycotoxins for just 16 days, growing swine experienced negative effects of mycotoxins in intestinal health and growth performance. These effects were observed to impact growth for up to 6 weeks after mycotoxin contaminated feed was removed from the diet, decreasing average daily weight gain in pigs.

Fact 3: The presence of mycotoxins may render swine and poultry more susceptible to some bacterial pathogens, like E. coli and Salmonella.
This could be secondary to an immunosuppressive effect of mycotoxins. In general, large doses of mycotoxins such as ochratoxin and trichothecenes will lead to lymphocytic depletion in immune organs, meaning reduced immune function overall. Reduced immune function can also occur when contamination of feed occurs from different mycotoxins simultaneously, even if concentrations are below the respective maximum threshold individual mycotoxin. This is due to cooperative activity that occurs when several mycotoxins are fed at the same time. Depression of immune cells occurs along with inflammation on different organs renders several tissues more prone to bacterial and viral contamination. As a rule of thumb, after monogastrics have been consuming feed with contamination levels of mycotoxins, they will be more susceptible to infections and disease.

Fact 4: In swine, reproduction is greatly impacted by exposure to mycotoxins.
Diets contaminated with zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin derived from Fusarium Fungi, are particularly detrimental to reproduction in swine. This is due to the ability of ZEA to specifically bind estrogen receptors. In sows and gilts, this binding induces prolactin secretion, reduces luteinizing hormone and progesterone secretion, alters uterine morphology, ultimately suppressing functional ovulation and heat expression. Because of the interaction with estrogen receptors by ZEA, early term abortions might also be observed. However, the impact of mycotoxins on abortion may vary across herds fed different diets or among those using estrous synchronization protocols. A buildup of multiple mycotoxins, including DON, can also have an impact on reproduction. Since there are many toxins with different physiological effects, when a combination of them are consumed, the impact on reproduction becomes highly variable. In boars, ZEA exposure reduces serum testosterone, hindering sperm quality. Mycotoxins may also impact fetal development in swine. In one study, diets fed to swine containing high levels of ZEA resulted in reduced fetal and placental weight when exposure occurred up to day 70 of gestation. Reduced placental size and weight is associated with restricted intra-uterine growth, lower birth weights, and reduced growth performance over the lifetime of the pig. In poultry, there are few reported reproductive consequences due to exposure to mycotoxins.

What can you do to reduce mycotoxin load in feeds?

In general, fungi that produce mycotoxins are commonly present in the field, therefore, crops are exposed to them at a very early stage. This means that mycotoxins are commonly present in all crops, and that the concentration of mycotoxins in grain products is the key to understanding the potential impact of mycotoxins on the health and performance of livestock. Weather, especially during the harvesting season, plays a critical role in influencing the production of mycotoxins. In general, moisture and high temperatures encourage mold growth and mycotoxin production. This is why rainy harvesting seasons are related with a higher content of mycotoxins in crops vs drier harvesting seasons.

Storage of grain can either introduce mold or encourage mold growth and the consequent production of mycotoxins. Grain left exposed to the elements and feed stored in dirty silos or bins are a primary area for controlling mycotoxins in grain. Metal walls of silos conduct heat during the hottest hours of the day, transferring that heat to the adjacent grain. As the temperature cools, condensation builds inside the silo or bin. Humidity and heat in the presence of mold contamination on the walls of a dirty silo are the perfect environment for mold growth and mycotoxin production. Concerns with mycotoxin contamination during feed storage is especially relevant in young animals or small herds where feed tends to be held for longer periods of time (greater than 7 days) within bins and silos. Clean storage bins, however, are only part of a system of management for mycotoxin exposure.

A feed bin left unclean from the previous contents can grow mold on the metal walls. Image by Gino Lorenzoni

Substantial build up of grain materials and mold on the inside of a bin. Image by Gino Lorenzoni

Managing mycotoxin exposure should start at harvest by removing heavily contaminated grains when possible. One of the most cost-efficient ways to eliminate mycotoxins is by eliminating heavily contaminated grain. Not all grain is equally contaminated with mycotoxins. Very few grains contain most of the overall contamination affecting a crop. The heavily contaminated grain is considerably lighter than non-contaminated grain and it can be removed with a grain separator that uses air flow to raise and separate very light kernels from the undamaged grain. Investment for grain processor or feed mill is high to begin with, but savings on the long term are guaranteed. Removing contaminated grains can be aided by being able to identify contaminated grains. To learn how to identify contaminated grains, look for Penn State Extension articles that will help you identify , handle contaminated grains, and use mycotoxin contaminated grains . However, if you are purchasing mixed feed or ground grain, other methods will be needed in order to effectively deal with the mycotoxin load.

If you have purchased grain or feed that is contaminated, dilute the affected grain with uncontaminated, high quality grains. In general, there is a range for most mycotoxins at which they start affecting the animal production in a significant manner. If mycotoxin affected grains must be used, dilution of the affected batches of grain is a cost-effective measure for reducing the impact of mycotoxins on livestock consuming that grain. However multiple sampling and mycotoxin analysis are needed to determine the concentration of mycotoxin in every batch of feed, reducing the practical efficiency of this method for feed manufacturers. As an additional tip, prior to diluting affected raw materials organic acids could be sprayed on them. This will kill most of the fungal contamination and will limit the mycotoxin production once the contaminated material has been diluted.

If mycotoxin contamination is still an issue after attempted dilution of the diet, mycotoxin binders could be another option to reduce the impact of mycotoxins on poultry and swine. In general, non-polar (aflatoxin) mycotoxins are effectively bound by mycotoxin binders. Most of the binders available on the market are really effective for binding this toxin as most clays will do this naturally. Most binders can bind toxins and nutrients at the same time; however, this should not be a concern if binders are only used for a short period of time. If mycotoxin binders need to be utilized over a long period of time, you may want to explore specific, porous surface clays that are especially suitable for toxin binding or formulate your diet with additional vitamins and minerals.

Critical evaluation of mycotoxin binders should be practiced when looking for a binder to utilize on mycotoxins that are not from the aflatoxin family. Some mycotoxin binders on the market that advertise ‘added technology’ tend to be more expensive than generic products and not adequately tested in live animals. Many of the current tests to demonstrate the efficacy of mycotoxin binders are conducted in vitro (in the absence of animals). Binders tested only in vitro may have been exposed to unrealistic conditions, such as prolonged contact time with the substrate (24 h) or while using pH ranges that do not mimic physiological pH ranges. In nature, the pH of the intestinal tract is variable and the contact time of the toxins with the intestinal mucosa can be short. For example, in chickens, feed enters and leaves the duodenum in 15 minutes or less and most of the ingesta is out of the chicken in 6-9 hours. In vitro binding ability over a 24 hour period on a constant pH is meaningless. While contact time is longer in swine, binders should offer detailed proof of their claimed technology for charging premium fees. It is also important to note that binders will not bind mycotoxins in dry feed. The process of mycotoxin binding will only start when the animal ingests the feed (binders need an aqueous substrate to bind toxins). Due to this delay, even the most effective binder will not mitigate the initial toxic effect immediately after feed ingestion. Only after a few minutes will dietary binders start binding to mycotoxins, even in the case of utilizing exceptionally effective dietary mycotoxin binders.

In summary, animal production is hindered when livestock are exposed to large amounts of mycotoxins. Mycotoxins cause damage to the intestinal tract, immune and reproductive systems in poultry and swine, respectively. It is important to remember that the damage to the reproductive system in swine may have long lasting effects.

Avoiding the ingestion of mycotoxins by removing affected kernels, diluting contaminated raw materials or feed, or by adding mycotoxin binders. Each method of managing mycotoxin contaminated feed and ingredients presents advantages and disadvantages. Mycotoxin binders are popular and especially effective for aflatoxins, which are easy to control by most commercially available binders. Products that offer ability to bind or deactivate toxins other than aflatoxin should be cautiously evaluated and require further inspection.

Be aware of the impact of mycotoxins on your livestock this year, apply these tips, and others from Penn State Extension, to your feed quality and mycotoxin management plans.

Resources

Cheng, Y., C. Weng, B. Chen, M. Chang. 2006. Toxicity of different Fusarium mycotoxins on growth performance, immune responses and efficacy of a mycotoxin degrading enzyme in pigs. Anim.Res. 55:579-590. Doi: 10.1051/animres:2006032.

Cortinovis, C., F. Pizzo, L. J. Spicer, and F. Caloni. 2013. Fusarium mycotoxins: Effects on reproductive function in domestic animals-A review. Theriogenology. 80:557–564. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2013.06.018.

McEvoy, T. G., J. J. Robinson, C. J. Ashworth, J. A. Rooke, and K. D. Sinclair. 2001. Feed and forage toxicants affecting embryo survival and fetal development. Theriogenology. 55:113–129. doi:10.1016/S0093-691X(00)00450-7.

Zhang, Y., R. Gao, M. Liu, B. Shi, A. Shan, and B. Cheng. 2015. Use of modified halloysite nanotubes in the feed reduces the toxic effects of zearalenone on sow reproduction and piglet development. Theriogenology. 83:932–941. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2014.11.027.

Zinedine, A., J. M. Soriano, J. C. Moltó, and J. Mañes. 2007. Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: An oestrogenic mycotoxin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45:1–18. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.07.030.

Flock Awards Recognize Top Ross Performance

By
Jim
-

Winners excel in husbandry, leadership and commitment

Ross® customers continue to impress with their star performance. To honor those who, through best management practices, have achieved outstanding breeding performance, Aviagen recently presented the 2018 Flock Awards. In separate ceremonies led by Aviagen representatives, the winners were given an engraved crystal egg to honor their accomplishments.

Categories of excellence

Evaluated based on 2018 flock records, Ross 708 and Ross 308 performance is awarded in the categories of:

 Top eggs produced per hen housed to 65 weeks  Top hatching eggs produced per hen housed to 65 weeks  Top hatch (based on a percentage) to 65 weeks  Top chicks produced per hen housed to 65 weeks

To be eligible, a farm complex must submit all records of depleted flocks received from Aviagen for the previous year, with a minimum requirement of six flocks.

In addition to rewarding the hard work of these producers, the aim of the Flock Award program is to offer customers the depleted flock information to be used as benchmarking data.

Ross performance at its best

Aviagen began the Flock Award program in 2014 to celebrate the skill and dedication of its valued Ross customers. Since then, Aviagen has expanded the program with a greater number of achievement categories.

“The story of our North American Ross customers is one of growth and success, as we continue to see year-on-year performance increases. We congratulate this year’s winners and commend their talent in stockmanship and teamwork,” remarked Randall Vickery, Aviagen’s Regional Technical manager.

Aviagen’s VP of Sales Frank Dougherty added that the North American customer support team cares about their customers and devote time and energy to add value to their businesses.

“We’re committed to helping our customers stay competitive by continually improving on past success. Aviagen makes ongoing investments in our breeding program. Our team shares the latest developments, and works hand-in-hand with our customers to design a master plan for optimizing the genetic potential of Ross birds. It is the skilful management and attention to detail of our customers, combined with the close collaboration of our team that makes the winning performance of our Flock Award recipients possible.”

Presenting the 2018 award winners

Many of this year’s high achievers are repeat winners from 2017. This year, first and second place champions were recognized with gold and silver awards for Ross 708. Ross 308 winners received gold awards, while the silver category will be added as more flocks are sold.

2018 Ross 708 award winners

Feed Withdrawal: A Practical Look at Its Effect on Intestine Emptying, Contamination and Yield

By
Jim
-

Introduction

When broiler companies experience contamination problems at the plant, many will routinely increase the feed withdrawal time. Unfortunately, this may be the exact opposite of what needs to be done. During processing, certain windows of opportunity occur that will decrease the potential for contamination. Knowing when these windows occur requires an understanding of the dynamics of feed withdrawal and its effect on the bird’s intestine. A variety of factors influence the eating and drinking patterns of the broiler flock: temperature, ventilation, equipment, and lighting programs are a few. The goal is to recognize and establish a steady-state eating pattern in the flock. Once this goal is reached, the feed withdrawal time can be adjusted as dictated by the season to hit the first optimal window for processing birds with minimal contamination.

This guide explains the effects of feed and water withdrawal on intestinal emptying in broilers. The guide covers steady state consumption and binge eating, and clarifies what happens to feed once it is eaten. Further, it explains the various forms of contamination and details the time required for emptying of the crop, gizzard and intestines. Finally, it relates how feed withdrawal affects yield and provides pictures of broiler intestines after various time periods of feed and water withdrawal.

Phibro Animal Health has supported the reproduction of this guide as a service to poultry producers in Manitoba and to poultry producers worldwide. For additional information, please contact Phibro Animal Health (1-888-403-0074) or visit their website (www.phibroah.com ).

Steady-State Feed Consumption: The Goal

Steady-state feed consumption refers to the eating pattern of a broiler. Broilers in a comfortable environment with full lights or nearly 24 hours of lights and constant access to feed and water consume both feed and water at a steady rate throughout the day and night. Individually, broilers are meal eaters. If broilers have easy access to feed, they will eat about every 4 hours and will drink several times during the 4-hour feeding cycles. A good eating pattern can be verified in a flock by palpating the crops of 50 to 100 birds, which should reveal 30-50% of the broilers with feed in their crops. No birds should have more feed in its crop larger than the size of a golf ball, which is indicative of binge eating.

Binge Eating and Why it Occurs

The normal eating cycle may be affected by many factors in the birds’ environment. If birds do not eat for a period, they will try to replace the amount of feed they missed. The longer the period of deprivation, the more excessive the binge. Birds binge usually as a result of one of the following conditions:

  • the lights have been off for a period of time
  • feed has not been available
  • the birds have been trained to eat and drink at irregular times
  • the house temperatures has been so cool or hot that the birds are not comfortable

Light interruptions cause birds to stop eating. When the lights come back on, all the birds that missed their normal feeding want to eat at the same time. Crowding of the feeders and waterers results. The longer the lights were off, the more severe the crowding. If crowding is excessive, birds that are unable to gain access to feed try to climb over birds in front. Cuts and scratches (possibly resulting in type 2 IP) can result. With the pushing and crowding, some birds eat less than they desire and will return to the feeders sooner than 4 hours, causing more crowding. As mentioned earlier, any time broilers miss a normal feeding, they overconsume at the next opportunity in an effort to catch up on the feed they missed. If non-eating periods are repeated, broilers will be trained to eat larger quantities when feed is available. Broilers taught to binge are hard to retrain to normal eating patterns.

Temperature has a great deal to do with binge eating. Lower than desirable house temperatures and/or air movement that reduces the effective house temperature causes the birds to stop eating, and then binge later. Ideally, birds should be comfortable so that they will eat at a steady state 24 hours per day. The ideal house temperature for birds is one at which they are comfortable enough so we can see birds moving at any time of day or night. Ideal bird movement occurs when, at all times, groups of birds can be seen standing and maneuvering their way across the house to the feeders and drinkers. Any time an entire house of birds is sitting and resting on the litter, they are not comfortable. They have rejected the air temperature at a foot high and have opted for the litter temperature which is usually 90°F.

Air movement reduces the effective temperature. The greater the air movement, the warmer the house temperature must be. A broiler’s desire to eat is often overridden by temperature only a few degrees too low or by excessive air movement, factors that might seem insignificant to a human.

In excessively hot houses birds will be seen standing and panting, possibly with dropped wings, or sitting on the litter panting. Temperatures that are too low or air speeds that are too high will cause birds to respond by sitting on the litter. When birds sit on the hot litter (generally built-up litter has a temperature of 90°F) their core temperatures increase and they may pant. Birds offered a low air temperature or excessive air movement will drop to the floor and accept the excessive floor temperature. Optimum environmental conditions to achieve the best feed conversions occur when a small percentage (10%) of the flock can be observed standing and panting.

Feed Passage Down the GI Tract

After eating, a broiler drinks some water, solubilizing part of the feed in the crop. This liquid portion passes into the proventriculus (stomach) and on into the gizzard. The feed remaining in the crop dries, and the bird must drink several times to pass all the feed out of the crop. Thus, the feed is metered out of the bird’s crop. The gizzard is also a metering device. Liquefied feed entering the top of the gizzard from the crop, via the stomach, is squeezed by contractions, which force the most liquefied portion out of the gizzard into the duodenal loop. This process leaves a rather dry material until more liquid enters. The gizzard mixes the dry material with new liquid and forces out a portion of the mixture.

If broilers cannot or do not eat feed, they will eat litter or drink water. Even though neither of these has any nutrient value, either can force feeding remaining in the gizzard up and out, giving the broiler the nutrients. Naturally, broilers prefer feed but will eat litter or drink water if feed is not available. If a gizzard is opened, its contents will reveal the availability of feed to the broiler on its last day. If feed have been adequately available to the bird, only feed with some water will be found in the crop and gizzard. If any litter is found in the gizzard, either mixed with feed or by itself, the bird was off feed for an excessive period of time.

Contamination and Feed Withdrawal

During processing of broilers, carcasses may be contaminated. The definition of contamination refers to the contents of the digestive tract on or in the carcass. A variety of materials can contaminate the carcass (see chart).

Possible Sources of Contamination

Feed

The bird ate too recently, or they had no access to water.

Watery Contents

The birds drank excess water long after feed  was removed, or the lining of the intestine which is 90 to 95% water can be breaking down.

Feces

Digested feed that has not been passed prior to evisceration.

Bile

Bile continues to be manufactured by the liver and accumulates in the gallbladder when feed is not passing. Bile contamination is greater with long-term feed withdrawal when some bile is dumped into the intestine.

Broken Down Intestinal Lining

A common form of contamination after  the birds are off feed longer than 8   hours. Duodenal lining starts sloughing at 8 hours. Sloughing progresses down the intestine with time.

Litter

Feed was not available and the birds ate litter which is present in the digestive tract.

Cecal Contents

Once feed passage stops, cecal dumping  becomes irregular and enlarged cecas result.

Poultry Disease Diagnosis

By
Jim
-
Text file for accessibility: File p1276_accessible.docx

The proper diagnosis of poultry diseases depends on three important factors:

  1. Identification of vital organs and body structure.
  2. Knowledge of disease symptoms and lesions.
  3. A systematic plan for examining the bird’s body.

This publication outlines a plan for examining sick birds. Become familiar with the normal appearance of birds and their organs by following the procedure outlined in this publication on one or more healthy birds. Examining a healthy bird can help you learn what to look for in sick birds.

It is especially important that you identify affected organs and tissues before seeking a diagnosis from poultry specialists. A treatment cannot be suggested unless an accurate history and list of symptoms and lesions are known.

Flock History

Poultry diseases must be considered as diseases of the flock rather than individual diseases. Symptoms in a few individual birds are usually an indication of a more serious flock-wide problem. It is important that an accurate flock history be recorded. The source of many diseases can be determined from an accurate flock history.

A complete flock history includes the following:

  • name and address of the owner
  • number of birds in the flock
  • breed, strain, and age of the birds

Management information consists of the following:

  • hatchery source
  • type of operation
  • feeding program
  • complete vaccination history

Information on the illness includes  the following:

  • date the illness was first observed
  • severity and number of birds affected
  • number of birds dying
  • medication history

Final remarks of disease in previous flocks and any unusual problems or conditions should be included.

External Examination

Before examining the bird internally, observe and inspect the bird for external symptoms. Note the general condition and fleshing (presence of meat on the bone) of the bird. Check the condition of the skin and all natural body openings (nasal openings, mouth, ears, and vent). Examine the head, eyes, comb, and wattles for evidence of swelling, canker lesions, or unusual discharge or coloration.

Look for signs of lameness, paralysis, or general weakness. Inspect the affected areas for abnormalities or swelling that can give a clue to the cause. If you observe a partial or complete paralysis, note the position the bird assumes. It is often an indicator of the cause of illness. Inspect the bird for external parasites such as mites, lice, ticks, and fleas.

Euthanasia

Starting a flock treatment early often saves more birds than delaying treatment until the first birds die. For disease diagnosis, it is often best to kill a sick bird showing typical symptoms of the flock. Healthy birds from a sick flock contribute nothing when examined.

The most humane method of killing the bird is dislocation of the head from the cervical vertebrae. Cervical dislocation is the most practiced method of killing birds for examination.

To dislocate the head from the vertebra, direct the bird’s head toward you. Grasp the bird’s head with a handshake grip. Place your thumb behind the head at the base of the skull, and allow the remaining fingers to extend under the throat. Hold the bird’s feet with the other hand and stretch the bird until you feel the head separating from the neck vertebrae. You may need to bend the head back slightly while stretching the bird.

Be careful to stop pulling when the spine separates or the head may be pulled off. The bird dies immediately when the spine separates.

The killing of small birds such as chicks, poults, or parakeets is often difficult because their heads are small and hard to grasp. The vertebrae may be separated by applying pressure with scissor handles at a joint between two vertebrae. It is best to apply pressure on each side of the neck rather than at the throat and back of the neck. This avoids unnecessary damage to the gullet and windpipe.

Large chickens and turkeys may be killed this same way, using a burdizzo instead of scissor handles. A burdizzo is a plier-like tool used when castrating cattle and other farm animals.

It is important that you are familiar with the organs you will see. Become familiar with the following anatomy before examining sick birds.

Poultry Anatomy

Respiratory System

Each nasal opening leads into a nasal cavity that is connected to sinus cavities around each eye. A split in the roof of the mouth provides an air passage between the nasal cavities and the lower respiratory system. The nasal cavities filter the air before it enters the lungs.

The larynx is located at the rear of the mouth. It is the structure connecting the trachea (windpipe) and gullet. The trachea is a tube that separates into two bronchial tubes, with each tube attached to a lung. The trachea and bronchial tubes are supported by rings of cartilage that prevent the tubes from collapsing.

The lungs are located near the vertebra against the ribs. They resemble bright red sponges because of the abundant blood supply. Bird lungs are smaller in proportion to body size than other animals. Though small, the lungs are aided by an extensive system of air sacs found only in birds.

The air sacs are thin membrane sacs that surround the internal organs. They are used as reserve air space to increase lung capacity. When the bird’s body is opened, the air sacs appear as clear, thin membranes among the body organs. They are among the first sites affected by respiratory diseases.

Digestive System

The mouth is connected to the rest of the digestive system by a thin-walled tube called the esophagus or gullet. The lower portion of the esophagus forms a pouch called the crop. It functions as a temporary storage site for food. The lower end of the esophagus is attached to the bird’s stomach.

The bird stomach has two parts: proventriculus and gizzard. The proventriculus is the slightly enlarged area between the esophagus and gizzard. When opened, it has a deeply textured appearance. The gizzard has a tough membrane inner lining firmly attached to the muscular outer part.

The gizzard is attached to the upper end of the small intestine. The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum. It is held in a loop-like position by the pancreas. The pink pancreas is located between and attached to the portions of the intestine forming the loop.

The lower portion of the small intestine is attached to a membrane called the mesentery. This mesentery is laced with many blood vessels that enter and exit the small intestine. When opened, the lining of the small intestine has a soft, velvety texture.

Two large, closed pouches called ceca are attached at the lower end of the small intestine. Bacterial action in the ceca helps break down some of the undigested food passing through the intestine. The ceca in adult chickens are usually about 4–6 inches long. When opened, they contain a darker brown waste material than the intestines.

Following the ceca, the small intestine changes into the large intestine. This large intestine empties into the cloaca, or the chamber where the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems meet. The external opening of the cloaca is called the vent.

The liver is a large, brown organ located in the front portion of the body cavity (thorax). It is the largest organ in the body. It has two large lobes separated by a thin membrane. Its function is to produce digestive fluids and filter toxic wastes from the blood. A digestive fluid produced in the liver (bile) is stored in the gall bladder. This gall bladder is a small, greenish pouch attached to the liver. A bile duct between the liver and small intestine directs the bile to the intestine.

Urinary, Reproductive, and Vascular Systems

The urinary system in birds consists of kidneys and ureters. The kidney is a dark brown organ located in a pocket of the pelvic bones. There are two kidneys in each bird, and each kidney has a ureter. The ureter is a tube that passes the urinary wastes from the kidney to the cloaca.

The reproductive organs include the ovary and oviduct in the female and the testes in the male. The hen usually has only one ovary and oviduct. The ovary is a group of egg yolks in various stages of development and is located in the area of the kidneys. Some yolks may not be seen, while some in the laying hen may be the size of normal egg yolks. The oviduct in mature hens appears as a coiled tube extending from the area of the ovary to the cloaca. In immature females the ovary and oviduct may not be easily seen.

The reproductive system of the male consists primarily of the testes. The testes are oval organs located between the lungs and kidneys. Ducts through which sperm pass (ductus deferens) extend from each testis to the cloaca.

Vascular organs consist primarily of the heart and spleen. The four-chambered heart is located above the liver. The spleen is a spherical, reddish-brown organ located between the liver and gizzard. Its primary purpose is removing unhealthy blood cells, micro-organisms, and debris from the blood system.

Necropsy Procedure

A necropsy is an examination of a dead animal. The only tool necessary to perform a necropsy is a sharp cutting utensil, but several good quality tools such as surgical type scissors, scalpels, or knives are recommended.

A sharp pair of surgical-type scissors and a scalpel, or knife, make it easier to cut the necessary tissues. Heavy shears help when cutting through bones. Although few poultry diseases can infect people, it is recommended that you wear disposable plastic gloves during the necropsy procedure.

  1. Place the bird on a flat surface with breast side up and head directed away from you. The following steps are numbered to make it easier to follow the procedures.
  2. Remove upper portion of the beak by cutting through the nasal cavities and turbinated bones. Turbinated bones are membrane-covered plates on the walls of the nasal chambers. This lets you observe the upper respiratory areas for the presence of infection. Squeeze the turbinate area and note if excessive matter oozes from the area. Check the eyes for inflammation (unusual reddening), mucus, or discoloration.
  3. Insert one scissor blade into the mouth and cut through one corner of the mouth. Extend the cut down the neck so the interior of the gullet is exposed. Examine the mouth and larynx for abnormalities that indicate pox, mycosis, or other disease. Scan the gullet for tiny nodules (bumps) or signs of injury by foreign materials.
  4. Cut the larynx and trachea from the mouth and open the trachea lengthwise. Examine its interior for excessive mucus, blood, or cheesy material.
  5. Make an incision in the abdominal skin just below the tip of the breast cartilage. Extend the cut around the body on each side. Grasp the upper edge of the cut skin and bluntly peel the skin over the breast. This exposes the breast muscles. Examine them for conditioning and the presence of hemorrhages (sites of prior bleeding in the muscle).
  6. Cut the skin on the abdomen where the legs join the body. Place a hand on each leg and press down and out until the femoral joints dislocate and the legs lie flat on the table. Remove the skin from the legs and check for small pin-point hemorrhages.
  7. Make an incision through the abdominal muscles just below the tip of the breast bone. Do not cut too deep, or you may cut internal organs. Extend the cut toward the back and then angle toward the point of wing attachment on each side. Push the breast toward the head and dislocate the shoulder joints. Cut through the shoulder joints and remove the breast from the carcass.
  8. Observe the condition of the air sacs. The membranes are often cloudy and covered with mucus in diseased birds.
  9. Examine the liver for unusual swelling, lesions, hemorrhages, or abnormal coloration. Make incisions into the liver and check for scar tissue and necrotic (dead) tissue. Check the spleen for hemorrhages, lesions, and swelling. Check for a cloudy, fluid-filled sac surrounding the heart.
  10. Remove the liver, heart, and spleen so the digestive system is exposed. Check the digestive system for abnormal nodules, tumors, or hemorrhages. Sever the gullet near the mouth and remove the entire digestive system. You can cut the lower intestine behind the ceca for complete removal.
  11. Cut into the crop. Note if the contents are sour smelling. Wash contents from the crop and examine the lining for thickened, patch-like areas or necrotic ulcers. Check for capillary worms by making a small cut and slowly tearing the crop wall as if it were a piece of paper. Capillary worms appear as small, hair-like fibers extending across the base of the tear.
  12. Open the proventriculus, the slightly enlarged area between the esophagus and gizzard, and note any hemorrhages or a white coating on the lining.
  13. Open the gizzard and examine the lining for unusual roughness or lesions. Determine if the lining is separating from the underlying muscles.
  14. Slit the intestine lengthwise and examine contents for the presence of worms, free blood, and excess mucus. Check the lining for inflammation, ulcers, or hemorrhagic areas. If unusual conditions exist, note in which one-third portion of the intestine the conditions are located.
  15. Open the ceca and examine the contents. Look for cheesy cores and small, thread-like cecal worms. If you find blood, wash and examine the lining for scarring and cecal worms.
  16. Check the reproductive organs (ovary and oviduct in females, testes and ductus deferens in males) for abnormalities before removing them from the body.
  17. Examine the kidneys and ureters for unusual swelling or the presence of whitish salt deposits.
  18. Check the sciatic nerve extending to each leg for swelling. Once you remove the kidneys, you can see this nerve as a small, white fiber stretching from the spinal cord along the femur into the lower leg. Also check the brachial nerve extending from the spine, along each humerus, to the wing tip.
  19. Observe the lungs and bronchial tubes for lesions and unusual accumulation of mucus.

You can make notes on history, symptoms, and lesions until you are familiar enough to diagnose diseases without consulting references. It is recommended that you follow all the procedures in this publication. Often two or more diseases can infect a bird and the symptoms may be confusing. Check all affected areas before making a diagnosis and administering a treatment.

Diagnosis and Treatment

After you have listed the symptoms and lesions, you may refer to the Internet or a good poultry disease manual to help you determine the proper diagnosis in your backyard flock. You can also get helpful advice from your county agent or Extension poultry specialists.

When you or a specialist diagnoses a disease, a specialist will recommend a treatment. Take care to administer the medication using the proper dosage, method of application, and recommended period of time. Becoming familiar with disease symptoms and lesions and following the proper diagnostic procedures will eliminate the difficulty of diagnosing many poultry diseases.

If you are a commercial poultry producer, notify your service technician at the first sign that you may have a disease problem with your flock. Your service technician may recommend a treatment plan based on his or her necropsy of sick birds on your farm. Follow the recommendations of your service technician for a treatment program and for management of temperature and house environment. Maintain a strong biosecurity program. Do not allow unnecessary visitors on your farm, and do not visit other farms where chickens are present. Limit your contact with other growers at such places as feed stores, co-ops, cafes, and so forth. Do not wear your chicken house clothes to town, and do not check your birds in the same clothes that you wore to town.

Flock History

Owner:

Address:

Phone:

Number in flock:

Breed Age:

Hatchery source:

Type of operation (floor, cage, range, etc.):

Feeding program:

Vaccination history:

Date illness first seen:

No. affected by illness:

No. dead:

Symptoms and remarks:

External Examination

Condition of bird:

Comb and wattles:

Eyes, ears, mouth:

Vent opening:

External parasites:

Necropsy Results

Female/Male:

Head:

Eyes:

Nasal cavities:

Mouth:

Respiratory and Circulatory Systems

  • Larynx and trachea (windpipe):
  • Lungs and bronchial tubes:
  • Air sacs:
  • Heart:

Digestive System and Accessory Organs

  • Gullet (esophagus):
  • Crop:
  • Proventriculus and gizzard:
  • Small intestine:
  • Ceca:
  • Cloaca:
  • Liver:
  • Spleen:

The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.

 

Publication 1276 (POD-06-19)

Revised by Tom Tabler, PhD, Extension Professor, Poultry Science.

Copyright 2019 by Mississippi State University. All rights reserved. This publication may be copied and distributed without alteration for nonprofit educational purposes provided that credit is given to the Mississippi State University Extension Service.

Produced by Agricultural Communications.

Mississippi State University is an equal opportunity institution. Discrimination in university employment, programs, or activities based on race, color, ethnicity, sex, pregnancy, religion, national origin, disability, age, sexual orientation, genetic information, status as a U.S. veteran, or any other status protected by applicable law is prohibited. Questions about equal opportunity programs or compliance should be directed to the Office of Compliance and Integrity, 56 Morgan Avenue, P.O. 6044, Mississippi State, MS 39762, (662) 325-5839.

Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. GARY B. JACKSON, Director

The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662-325-2262.

Claessens Joins Marel´s Executive Team as Executive Vice President of Marel Poultry

By
Jim
-

s announced on 10 May, 2019 Roger Claessens has now taken over from Anton de Weerd, as Executive Vice President of Marel Poultry and will become a member of Marel´s Executive Team, reporting directly to CEO Árni Oddur Thórdarson.

Roger Claessens has been with Marel for over 18 years and most recently as Director of Innovation Marel Poultry.

About Marel

Marel (NASDAQ: MAREL; AEX: MAREL) is a leading global provider of advanced food processing equipment, systems, software and services to the poultry, meat and fish industries. Our united team of more than 6,000 employees in over 30 countries delivered EUR 1.2 billion in revenues in 2018. Annually, Marel invests around 6% of revenues in innovation. By continuously advancing food processing, we enable our customers to increase yield and throughput, ensure food safety and improve sustainability in food production. Marel was listed on NASDAQ Iceland in 1992 and dual-listed on Euronext Amsterdam in June 2019.

White Dog Labs’ natural butyrate delivers biosecurity, growth benefits and significant return

By
Jim
-

MiruTyton™, WDL’s natural butyrate fermentation soluble, substantially reduces prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter in challenged broilers in addition to improving Feed Conversion Ratio and weight gain, when delivered in solid feed or drinking water.

White Dog Labs announced today that MiruTyton, a fermentation solubles rich in butyrate, can reduce the incidence of Salmonella and Campylobacter in feces and cecum scrapings prior to processing plant delivery. Furthermore, MiruTyton continues to deliver statistically significant improvements in weight gain and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) for both males and females when fed throughput 42 days in either solid feed or drinking water, which allows greater flexibility for delivery and dosing. Finally, MiruTyton is naturally produced by non-genetically modified bacteria, and can potentially be used in organic operations.

Cargill and WDL have recently announced an off-take agreement for WDL’s premium Single Cell Protein, ProTyton™ which is a co-product of MiruTyton. WDL has developed and scaled up the anaerobic fermentation process for these products, and will be producing them in the MRE ethanol plant in Sutherland, NE.

“We are happy to announce these results, which were demonstrated through a close collaboration with industry experts and an independent testing lab,” said WDL’s CEO, Bryan Tracy.

The MiruTyton test was carried out with 1600 birds, 200 per treatment (100 male and 100 female) with 10 birds per cage. The MiruTyton doses in drinker were 250, 500, 1000ppm of net butyrate per treatment, while in solid feed they were 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000ppm. Body weight, feed intake and mortality were measured on days 0,14, 21, 28 and 42, while measurements on GIT histology and Campylobacter log10 per gram and Salmonella incidence in cecum and fecal samples were taken on day 42.

Body weight and FCR results for the zero-MiruTyton control matched well with the Ross 708 bird performance guide throughput the trial. Mixed sex growth performance peaked between 1000 – 2000ppm dose delivered in solid feed with 3.9% more weight gain in first 21 days and persisting through 42 days.  Weight gain improvement for solid feed addition was correlated with a 6.1pt and 5.7pt improvement in FCR over 21 and 42 days, respectively.  Mixed sex performance peaked between 500 – 1000ppm dose delivered in drinking water with 3.3% more weight gain in first 21 days and 3.9% more weight gain through 42 days.  Weight gain improvement for drinking water addition was also correlated with a 6.5pt and 4.7pt improvement in FCR over 21 and 42 days, respectively.  No mortality was observed in growth studies.

A subset of birds were challenged with 6-logs of Salmonella and 3-logs of Campylobacter on day 38, and Salmonella incidence and Campylobacter abundance was measured in fecal matter and cecum scrapings on day 42.  Salmonella incidence in fecal and cecum samples from both sexes was 90-100% in control diets, but reduced to only 10-20% incidence for 2000 and 4000ppm solid feed and 1000ppm drinking water doses.  Similarly, Campylobacter abundance was significantly reduced by 7 to 8 logs per gram for 2000 and 4000ppm solid feed and 1000ppm drinking water doses.

“Because MiruTyton is a liquid, we envision accurate and economical administration, and since it has a co-product that shares its production costs, it has pricing flexibility,” said Tracy. “We thus expect MiruTyton, also natural product, to have a positive impact on the industry, and are actively seeking a partner to distribute globally.”

Storage of Broiler Litter1

By
Jim
-

R. A. Bucklin, J. P. Jacob, R. A. Nordstedt, D. R. Sloan, R. S. Tervola, and F. B. Mather2

With the introduction of new environmental regulations, poultry producers are being challenged to develop environmentally friendly means of utilizing broiler litter. Broiler litter has value as a fertilizer source and as a stock material for compost production.

Broiler flock schedules determine when litter is cleaned from the houses. This does not always coincide with the best time to apply the litter as fertilizer on cropland. Litter must be stored under proper conditions in order to receive the best return. Storage techniques can determine whether you have a low or a high quality fertilizer. Litter must be stored in a manner that keeps it dry to maintain quality and also in a way that eliminates the possibility of nutrients leaching to the groundwater. Stockpiling litter uncovered on the soil can result in a fivefold reduction in the nitrogen content of the manure. The nitrogen lost from the manure can be carried by water to surface streams or ditches and into the groundwater.

Storage Location

Flies, odors, water quality, and the perceptions of neighbors are factors that must be considered when designing and constructing any litter storage structure. The first critical consideration in the design of any structure is location. This isparticularly important with litter storage structures. Litter should be stored in locations not easily seen by neighbors or traffic. Avoid sites that have prominent elevation or front on well-traveled roads unless they are shielded from view by visual barriers. Avoid sites that have the potential to cause odor problems for neighbors. Litter storage systems must be located away from streams and bodies of water. Consideration must be given to groundwater levels. Storage structures should be located on elevated, well-drained sites so that flooding will not be a problem.

Structures for Storage

Litter from broiler production is handled dry. The large volume of litter produced when a house is cleaned out requires the use of proper procedures or the quality of the litter can be adversely affected. A concrete pad should be provided at the end of each house for temporary storage. For longer term storage, an open-sided roofed structure is strongly recommended.

Broiler litter contains both wet and dry organic materials that produce heat when stored in confined piles. Storage structures with confining walls may be subject to the heat produced by spontaneous combustion within the manure. Limit manure contact with wood or use concrete wall construction.

Open Concrete Slabs

Concrete is the most widely used construction material for the floors of litter storage structures. Concrete offers the advantages of ready availability, ease of construction and relatively low cost. Open concrete slabs should have a slight slope of 1% toward the center. If spillage of litter is a potential problem at the edges of an open slab, provide a 6- to 8-inch curb. Slabs should be 6 inches thick. Slabs should be poured using air entrained concrete. Air entrainment improves the weathering ability and acid resistance of concrete by several hundred percent and also improves workability.

Concrete always shrinks as it cures. Because of this shrinkage, cracks will form at about 25-foot intervals in unreinforced concrete. The location of cracks can be controlled through the use of expansion or control joints that force the concrete to crack along the straight joints. Cracks can be eliminated by adding reinforcing steel equal to 0.65% of the cross-sectional area, but this is seldom economically practical. Instead of attempting to totally eliminate cracks, welded wire fabric reinforcing material can be used to keep cracks from expanding so that they can be sealed.

Concrete slabs should be reinforced with welded wire fabric placed 2-inches below the top surface. Table 1 gives the size of welded wire fabric needed for several common slab widths. If loaded trucks or heavy equipment will drive on the slab, the slab should be reinforced with steel rebar. All slabs should be poured over well-packed earth. If a portion of a slab settles, no amount of reinforcing will prevent cracking.

Covered Slabs

Litter can be stored temporarily at the ends of houses on open concrete slabs. However, if the litter is to be stored for any significant time, it should be covered with a permanent structure. A structure for storage of litter compost should consist of a roof over a concrete slab as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Covered slab.


[Click thumbnail to enlarge.]

The slab should be the same whether it is open or covered, except that a covered slab should have 4-foot side walls to prevent spillage of litter. The structure should have an eave height of at least 10-feet. The bottom of the eaves should be at least 2-feet higher than the top of the litter pile. The roof must be clear span so that interior columns do not interfere with handling of litter. The roof should be constructed with at least a 6-inch-wide ridge vent to allow moisture and corrosive gases to escape.

Wood can be used in the construction of the columns and roof, but the wood should be pressure treated if it is in contact with the ground or if it will be damp. It should be noted, however, that a considerable amount of heat can be generated by the stored litter. Wood posts in contact with a litter pile, therefore, are in danger of charring or even igniting.

Steel also can be used for the main structural elements of building frames, but the greatest use of steel is in the form of galvanized roofing material. The corrosive gases ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are present at high levels around litter handling and storage operations. Steel structural elements and fasteners must be galvanized to prevent corrosion problems.

Aluminum should not be used for structural or roofing material for litter storage. Ammonia is corrosive to aluminum and will quickly cause aluminum building materials to deteriorate.

Management

General

A storage structure is one part of an overall litter management system. Litter is a cost of production that requires a sound management system which will give a producer accountability and flexibility. To provide accountability, a producer should have a written litter management plan. Litter is a variable material and the producer must know the nutrient content of the stored litter. The producer must keep accurate records of litter production and litter application. Custom clean-out firms must follow the same guidelines as producers.

As a Fertilizer

Litter stockpiled on an open concrete slab can be protected by covering it with plastic sheeting, which is anchored with earth and used auto tires. The pile should be dome-shaped to allow rainwater to run off. The litter pile does not need to be compacted, but compacting will allow more litter to be stored in a small area and reduce the amount of plastic sheeting necessary. Take care while applying the plastic to prevent tearing. Make sure the plastic is flat on the pile to prevent water pockets. Improperly anchored plastic will become loosened in the wind and tear or blow off the pile. Heavy gauge (6-mil) plastic can last one or two seasons. Lighter gauge material is not recommended.

Deep Staking Processing

The storage of broiler litter has two functions: 1) to serve as a holding facility from the time the house is cleaned until feeding and 2) to eliminate disease-causing bacteria and prevent the growth of molds.

The easiest and most cost effective way of processing broiler litter is deep stacking for 4- to 6-weeks. During deep stacking, the litter undergoes a combined composting-ensiling process. The action of bacteria generally heats the stack to a temperature of between 140°F and 160°F. This is sufficient heat to kill any pathogens, such as E. coli and Salmonella, that may be present in the raw litter. The final product is drier, but nitrogen and other nutrients are retained in the litter.

Deep stack processing of litter helps curtail mold growth. Molds that produce mycotoxins do not grow well in litter because it is alkaline, it releases ammonia that is toxic to molds, and because the growth of molds is limited to surfaces exposed to air.

For proper heating, litter should contain 20% to 30% moisture and should be stacked 6 to 8 feet deep. Broiler litter that is dry may need to have water added prior to storage or it may not heat. Litter with moisture levels of 20% to 25% usually result in a good heat.

Litter is stacked 6- to 8-feet-high (at the peak of the stack) to ensure a critical mass that promotes acceptable heating. To minimize the possibility of spontaneous combustion, caution should be taken not to stack litter higher than 8-feet.

The stack should be packed with a heavy-wheeled vehicle as the material is layered. If the building does not lend itself to compacting the stored litter, the heating process sometimes will not proceed in a uniform manner and may result in overheating. If packing is not possible, cover the litter with plastic to limit oxygen availability and prevent overheating. Storing broiler litter in an upright silo has been shown to be an excellent storage procedure, but litter is abrasive to silage handling equipment.

The deep stacked litter stabilizes following the initial heating, and the material is not turned and allowed to reheat as is done with composted litter. Thoroughly composting the litter would reduce the carbohydrate and nitrogen availability in the material.

It is important to avoid overheating the litter during storage. Overheating (more than 160°F) may occur occasionally and reduces the feeding value by damaging both protein and carbohydrates. This problem can be controlled by packing the stack, covering the stack with plastic, or both.

Broiler litter should be deep stacked and stored for a minimum of 3-weeks before use: but 4- to 6-weeks is recommended. Once the litter has undergone the heating process, it will retain its value for an extended period of time, often for as long as 5 years.

How can you tell the quality of the deep stacked product? The process should result in a product that has a fine texture and an odor that resembles that of caramelized chocolate. It is important that it be free of an ammonia smell. It should not be black with a burnt smell. This is an indication of overheating. Gray-colored material with a strong manure smell indicates underheating. Monitoring the stockpile temperature in several locations with a probe thermometer will help determine if the stockpile has been heated properly.

Summary

Litter stockpiled for later use as a fertilizer should be stored covered to keep it dry. Rain can wash away valuable nutrients, thus reducing the value of the litter and possibly contaminating surface or groundwater.

Deep stacking is the most common method of processing broiler litter. During deep stacking, the stack of litter will produce heat which eliminates potential pathogens and improves the palatability of the litter. For proper heating, litter should contain 20% to 30% moisture and should be stacked 6- to 8-feet-deep for at least 4- to 6-weeks.

Tables

Table 1.Welded wire reinforcement fo r6-inch thick concrete slabs.

Slab width

(feet)

Size of welded wire reinforcement spacing (diameter)

10

6″ x 6″ (W1.4 x W1.4)

20

6″ x 6″ (W1.4 x W1.4)

30

6″ x 6″ (W2.1 x W2.1)

40

6″ x 6″ (W2.9 x W2.9)

Footnotes

1.

This document is PS15, one of a series of the Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date January 1997. Revised May 2004. Reviewed February 2018. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

2.

R. A. Bucklin, professor, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; J. P. Jacob, poultry Extension coordinator, Dairy/Poultry Sciences; R. A. Nordstedt, professor emeritus, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; D. R. Sloan, associate professor, Dairy/Poultry Sciences; R. S. Tervola, retired Extension director, UF/IFAS Extension Suwannee County; and F. B. Mather, associate professor emeritus, Animal Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For more information on obtaining other UF/IFAS Extension publications, contact your county’s UF/IFAS Extension office.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, UF/IFAS Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A & M University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Nick T. Place, dean for UF/IFAS Extension.

Checklist to Implementing an Effective Poultry Biosecurity Plan

By
Jim
-

Implementing any of these suggestions will reduce the risk of disease entry. Each additional step implemented will further reduce biosecurity risks.

  • Restrict entry to essential personnel and record entry.
  • Provide boots and coveralls for staff and visitors for each barn.
  • Staff should change into dedicated/disposable boots and coveralls upon entering each different barn. Clean footbaths may be appropriate within a barn if changed regularly.
  • If possible, provide show facilities for visitors.
  • Remove poultry mortality daily. Store or dispose of them in an approved method.
  • Ensure staff and visitors are aware of the dangers of raising or visiting other avian species and their contact with your flock.
  • Minimize entry of equipment, supplies, etc. and take appropriate precautions such as disinfection, removal from shipping boxes, etc.
  • Maintain a strong vector control program for insect, mammalian and avian vectors. Maintain bait stations, clean up feed spills, prevent entry by wild animals (rats, birds, insects) or pets (dogs, cats). Use screens in windows, air inlets, doors feed bin exhausts etc.
  • Maintain minimal vegetation and no debris around poultry facilities to lessen food and shelter opportunities for vectors.
  • Ensure that feed, water and bedding sources are free from infectious agents.
  • Review your biosecurity plan and flock health program, including vaccination protocols, with your veterinarian on a regular basis.

Biosecurity “Stop” signs suitable for entries are available for download and printing. For more information visit the OMAFRA livestock web site or call our Agricultural Information Contact Centre at: 1-877-424-1300.

Vaccinated birds shown to have lower incidence of Salmonella at processing, By Charles Hofacre, PhD, president, Southern Poultry Research Group. In

By
Jim
-

Source: PoultryHealthToday.com

Broilers vaccinated against Salmonella showed reduced levels of the pathogen at processing in a recent study, according to Charles Hofacre, PhD, president, Southern Poultry Research Group. Inc.

USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) used to test only whole carcasses. In 2016, when it also started testing chicken parts separately, it became clear that when the chicken is cut, “it causes a bloom in the Salmonella,” Hofacre told Poultry Health Today.

S. Heidelberg challenge

To evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination, Hofacre led a floor-pen study. Investigators vaccinated all 1-day-old broilers in the hatchery. At 4 days of age, they administered S. Heidelberg to half of the birds in each pen, which then transmitted the pathogen to other pen mates. The vaccinated birds received a field boost in the water at 14 days.

The birds, which were processed at 42 days of age at a small plant run by the USDA’s Russell Research Center, were not eviscerated, but hocks were removed and a carcass rinse was then done.

Salmonella was then measured at three different points: in the pens, in the carcass rinse after processing and in the ceca, which was removed after processing, he continued.

Carcass-rinse results

Compared to the unvaccinated group, the carcass rinse from vaccinated birds contained 20% less Salmonella (31% versus 11%), Hofacre reported.

“They had less in their intestines, less in the environment and then less on that final carcass rinse in the processing plant,” he added. Vaccination lowered Salmonella during all three steps.

More companies in the US poultry industry are vaccinating broilers against Salmonella to maintain a favorable FSIS category or to move their results lower and into a better category. Vaccination against Salmonella, Hofacre said, is also being used by companies that are having issues with S. Enteritidis or S. Heidelberg, which pose a greater risk to human health.

Vaccination coupled with the chemical interventions used at processing can substantially reduce the level of Salmonella in the final product that goes to the consumer, Hofacre said.

However, he cautioned that reducing Salmonella should start with breeders so there will be less in the chicks when they’re hatched and less on the broiler farm, Hofacre noted.

“A breeder program, no matter what you start with today, is going to take at least a year before it fully impacts [the incidence of Salmonella in broilers],” he said.

During that time, producers can use the live-vaccination program in broilers to keep Salmonella levels under control, he said.

Small-Scale Egg Production (Organic and Non-Organic)

By
Jim
-

Egg production on a small scale is one of the oldest animal farming enterprises in recorded history. A small investment may yield several years of income.

In the United States, egg production followed these principles until early in the twentieth century. Then new systems emerged for producing eggs in more specialized facilities, making the operation more efficient. In addition, population shifts from farms to towns and cities increased the demand for fresh products. These changes encouraged many dairy farmers to include egg production as an additional enterprise.

The late 1950s and 1960s saw drastic changes in the industry. Co-ops, feed companies, and other private firms organized egg production into a coordinated industry.

This meant that egg production on a farm changed from a secondary to a primary enterprise with specialized production methods. The result was virtual elimination of small-scale egg farming.

Small-scale layer production has made a comeback since the 1980s because of changing consumer demands. Backyard egg producers may see a local market for their surplus eggs. New markets are continually being developed to supply specific niche market needs, especially for organically produced brown eggs (although white eggs also are popular). Layers raised organically and used for producing organic eggs are more valuable at the end of their production cycle and can be sold as roasting chickens. Conventionally grown layers have less value because of size and body structure and are sold to make protein supplements for pet food or sold to a live bird market as a stewing hen.

Many states and private organizations certify organically produced meat and eggs. Check the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) Certified Organic website to find the certifying body for your state or area. To obtain organic enterprise certification in Pennsylvania, contact Pennsylvania Certified Organic by phone at 814-422-0251 or check the Pennsylvania Certified Organic website for more information.

Marketing

As with any new enterprise, you should research markets before starting production. You should conduct some market research because growers often overestimate their ability to sell in a given market. The major markets for eggs from small flocks are specialty stores, farmers’ markets, roadside stands, and neighbors. Additional niche markets exist for people who want organic, fertilized, or free-range eggs. Since very little information about these markets is available for any given geographic area, developing them requires research and time. Check with your state department of agriculture and local extension office to see if a local marketing support program exists to help register you as a vendor of locally produced food.

Getting Started

One of the most practical ways to get started is to begin with a flock of up to 1,000 birds and use existing facilities when feasible. A unit of this size allows you to learn the necessary production and marketing skills without making a large investment. Costs are limited to a layer house, nests, and feed and watering equipment.

Start your flock with young pullets (16-18 weeks old) from a reputable dealer. Buy birds that are ready to begin producing eggs. Make sure they are certified by the National

Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP) to be free of Salmonella pullorum, Salmonella typhoid, Salmonella enteritidis, and mycoplasma. A list of NPIP hatcheries is available from the USDA. Before your pullets arrive, check that their litter is dry and all feeders and drinkers are clean and in good working order.

Check for any local ordinances that may prohibit the keeping of poultry at your location. Often these ordinances prohibit the type or number of birds you can keep in one location. Residential associations for some communities may have even more restrictions on the keeping of livestock within their jurisdictions. Please review these ordinances for any concerns prior to starting your enterprise.

More than sixty breeds of chickens are used for commercial poultry production. Many breeds lend themselves to either egg or meat production and some breeds may be used for both (i.e., dual purpose). Most breeds producing white eggs efficiently tend to be lean, light in weight, and do not lend themselves to meat production. Most breeds producing brown eggs are larger, heavier bodied, and when finished laying can be used as roasting chickens.

Production Considerations

You will need at least 1.5 square feet of floor space per bird, covered with clean straw, wood shavings, or sawdust. One feed pan usually provides enough space for 20 birds. Sufficient watering equipment should be available for 20 birds per cup, 12 birds per nipple, or 1 bird per linear inch of trough space. Birds do not lay eggs at the same time, so nests can be supplied at the rate of one nest per five hens. Nest box bedding should be different from floor litter and must be kept clean and dry.

Lighting stimulates hens to lay eggs. If you want to produce eggs year-round, you will need to install adequate lighting in your facility. Gradually increase the length of time hens are exposed to light when they arrive at your farm. Start with 12 hours of total light per day at an indoor intensity that just allows you to read the fine print of a newspaper at night (0.5- to 1.0-foot candles). Increase daylight length by 30 minutes per week until you reach 16 hours of light per day. Additional outside light exposure is fine; you should just have the supplementary lights begin and remain on before and after dawn and dusk.

Ventilation of poultry enclosures is necessary so that adequate air exchange can take place to keep littered floors dry. Ventilation needs will vary with ambient temperature. If the temperature is too hot or cold for you, it will be for your layers as well. Misting water around the outside of poultry enclosures may be necessary to keep your layers cool during the extreme heat of summer months. Additional litter materials may be necessary to provide insulation during the winter can aid to protect hens from cold floors and drafts.

Conventional layer mash feed can be purchased at your local feed store. Certified organic feeds are also available, but they are sometimes more difficult to find and are more costly. All hen mash should contain at least 3.5 percent calcium and 16 percent crude protein. Additional free-choice calcium may be provided after birds are 45 weeks old to aid in good shell formation, especially during hot weather. Water should be given free choice, and container-based watering systems should be emptied and cleaned every other day at a minimum. Use a bucket to carry waste water away from living areas to reduce the potential for disease and to prevent the litter from becoming damp or wet.

This publication outlines conventional and organic cage-free production methods. The conventional method recommends molting the flock to stimulate a return to laying. Molting involves resting the hen for a short period of time with cessation of lay. This is done by reducing the hours of daily light back to the day length utilized during pullet rearing (10 hours) and feeding a lower energy and calcium diet–more like a pullet’s diet. This modification in feed and light will result in an involution of the oviduct and a rebuilding of this organ. After a period of rest and rebuilding, normal feeding and light schedules are resumed. This production practice extends the flock’s productive life without replacing the flock. Molting also increases egg size and quality for a period of time. Flocks may be molted more than one time, but this is not recommended for small flocks.

Many breeds are suitable for producing organic eggs. However, usually the brown egg layers with larger, heavier body types have better value as meat value and greater return after laying has ceased.

Health Considerations

Biosecurity and sanitation are necessary to prevent disease outbreaks. Biosecurity involves isolating birds by age-group, restricting human access to buildings, keeping the buildings clean, and properly disposing of dead birds. To prevent the introduction of diseases, new birds should be isolated and observed for disease symptoms for one month before allowing contact with other birds.

Because of cannibalistic tendencies often seen in birds, housing of flocks should be done in an all-in, all-out fashion so that birds kept together are of the same age and size. If smaller birds are being raised as replacements, they should be kept in separate housing and seen first each day. Dead birds should be composted in a compost pile large enough to cover the birds with 6 inches of composting material surrounding the body or double-bagged if disposed of in municipal waste receptacles.

Beak trimming should be done at between 7 and 14 days of age in the flock. Dog toenail trimmers can be used to remove 1/16 inch of the upper beak to render the tip of the beak dull. This will keep the birds from injuring neighboring birds if they do peck. Shiny objects such as plastic soda bottles and pie pans can be hung in the house for flocks that are exhibiting aggressive behavior toward one another.

Consulting a veterinarian regularly is a good management practice. If high mortality suddenly appears in your flock with no apparent cause, contact your veterinarian and your state department of agriculture immediately. Most states have veterinary diagnostic laboratories that could aid in the diagnosis of any disease problems with your flock. In Pennsylvania, contact the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA) at the Bureau of Animal Health and Diagnostic Services (717-772-2852). You can find more information on the Pennsylvania Animal Diagnostic Laboratory System website. Remember, if antibiotics are prescribed, follow all label directions. Viral diseases do not respond to antibiotics, so their use is not normally recommended.

Regulations for Selling Eggs

The Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture regulates the sale of eggs from small flocks. If an egg producer has fewer than 3,000 laying hens, sells the eggs within five days from the date of lay, and sells the eggs predominantly within a 100-mile radius of their production or processing facility, then the following summary of regulations applies:

  • All eggs must be maintained at 60°F or less from the time of gathering to the time of sale. This also applies to eggs sold at farmer markets or at roadside stands. All commercial flocks of more than 3,000 hens are required to store eggs at no less than 45°F.
  • Each carton, flat, or container of eggs must be labeled with the producer’s name and address, date of lay, statement of identity (eggs), net contents (in 3/16-inch-high letters), and “Keep Refrigerated.”
  • If you do not weigh the eggs, or if they are of mixed size, and you do not wish to assign a grade, they must be labeled as “Unclassified.” You also must remove dirty, leaker, or loss eggs. Loss eggs are inedible or contaminated eggs discovered when held to a bright light (candling).

There are three consumer grades of eggs–Grade AA, Grade A, and Grade B. To market your eggs on these terms, they must meet the requirements for the consumer grade. If you would like to grade your eggs and need further information for consumer graders, contact the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture’s Egg Division at 717-787-5107, or write to Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Eggs, Fruits, and Vegetables Division, 2301 North Cameron Street Harrisburg, PA 17110 or find them online.

Weight Classes
Size Per Dozen Per 30 Dozen Minimum Weight
Jumbo 30 oz 56 lb 2.42 oz
Extra Large 27 oz 51 lb 2.17 oz
Large 24 oz 45 lb 1.97 oz
Medium 21oz 39.5 lb 1.92 oz
Small 18 oz 34 lb 1.42 oz
Peewee 15 oz 28 lb

Local Regulations

All agricultural operations in Pennsylvania, including small-scale and part-time farming operations, operate under the Pennsylvania Clean Streams Law. A specific part of this law is the Nutrient Management Act (also known as Act 38). Portions of this law may or may not pertain to your operation due to the number and/or size of animals you have. However, all operations may be a source of surface water or groundwater pollution. Because of this possibility, you should contact your local Soil and Water Conservation District to determine what regulations may pertain to your operation.

Risk Management

There are several risk management strategies you may employ for your operation. You should insure your facilities as well as your flock. This may be accomplished by consulting your insurance agent or broker. You may also insure your income through a crop insurance program called AGR-Lite. To use AGR-Lite you must have five years of Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Schedule F forms. You can then contact an agent who sells crop insurance and insure the income of your operation. For more on agricultural business insurance, see Agricultural Business Insurance.

Sample Budgets

Sample enterprise budgets for small-scale production of conventional and organic eggs, plus information on initial resource requirements, are included in this publication. The budgets assume the purchase of 1,000 birds, a 1,500-squarefoot building, nests, and feed and watering equipment. All other budget factors not listed in the budgets (e.g., land) are considered to be constant over time and are not listed. The budget assumptions for each production system are as follows:

  • Conventional small-scale production. Assumes that birds are housed at 18 weeks of age, molted at 70 weeks of age (after 52 weeks of production), and sold at 110 weeks of age (providing an additional 30 weeks of production). Feed for the entire period amounts to 142 pounds per bird. Spent layers are then sold as stewing hens.
  • Organic small-scale production. Assumes that birds are housed at 18 weeks of age and sold at 70 weeks of age (a total of 52 weeks of production). Feed for the 52 weeks amounts to 90 pounds per bird. Spent layers may be sold as organic roasting chickens and are more valuable than commercial stewing hens. Mortality is estimated at 4 percent of the flock.

These budgets should help ensure that you include all costs and receipts in your calculations. Costs may be difficult to estimate in budget preparation because they are numerous and variable. Therefore, think of these budgets as an approximation, then make appropriate adjustments using the “your estimate” column to reflect your specific production situation. More information on using livestock budgets can be found in Enterprise Budgeting Analysis.

You can make changes to the interactive PDF budget files for this publication by inputting your own prices and quantities in the green outlined cells for any item. The cells outlined in red automatically calculate your revised totals based on the changes you made to the cells outlined in green. You will need to click on and add your own estimated price and quantity information to all of the green outlined cells to complete your customized budget. When you are done, you can print the budget using the green Print Form button at the bottom of the form. You can use the red Clear Form button to clear all the information from your budget when you are finished.

Sample Budget Worksheets

Initial resource requirements: white egg flock

Land:

  • 2 acres (needed land includes building and waste disposal)

Labor:

1,040 hours

  • Egg collection and grading costs: $11,200-12,000 per flock

Capital:

  • Pullets: 1,000 birds x $5.00 = $5,000
  • Buildings, equipment (including egg cooler): $26,800-28,000

Total capital investment: $42,000 – 45,000

Initial resource requirements: brown egg flock

Land:

2 acres (needed land includes building and waste disposal)

Labor:

820 hours

  • Egg collection and grading costs: $5,700-6,200 per flock

Capital:

  • Pullets: 1,000 birds x $6.00 = $6,000
  • Buildings, equipment (including egg cooler): $26,000-28,000

Total capital investment: $38,000 – 41,000

For More Information

Bureau of Food Safety and Laboratory Services
Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture
2301 North Cameron Street
Harrisburg, PA 17110-9408

Department of Animal Science
The Pennsylvania State University
324 Henning Building
University Park, PA 16802

Associations

Penn Ag Industries Association Poultry Council
2215 Forest Hills Dr., Suite 39
Harrisburg, PA 17112

Pennsylvania Certified Organic
Leslie Zook, Executive Director
106 School Street
Suite 201
Spring Mills, PA 16875
Phone: 814-422-0251
Fax: 814-422-0255
E-mail: info@paorganic.org

Mills Selling Organic Feed

These mills also sell organic pullets, but they may not sell to producers whose goal is less than a 1,000-bird laying flock.

Powls Feed Mill
1934 Lancaster Pike
PO Box 15
Peach Bottom, PA 17563

Kreamer’s Feed Mill
PO Box 38
Kreamer, PA 17833

Organic Unlimited
120 Liberty Street
Alglen, PA 19310

Publications

  • “Proper Handling of Eggs from Hen to Consumption,” by Phillip J. Clauer, Poultry Extension Specialist, Virginia Tech. This article will discuss how you can ensure that your eggs will be of the highest quality and safe for consumption.
  • “Rearing Chicks and Pullets for the Small Laying Flock,” by Melvin L. Hamre, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota. Good layers develop from healthy, well bred chicks raised under good feeding and management programs. Buying the right type of chick is important for the most economical production.
  • “Small Laying Flock,” by Melvin L. Hamre, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota. A well-planned and well-managed small laying flock can be a source of fresh eggs, personal pleasure, and, sometimes, profit.
  • “Small Poultry Flocks” (requires Acrobat Reader 3.01). Very good older USDA publication. Covers all aspects of small-scale poultry production.
  • “The Small Laying Flock,” by Fred Thornberry, Extension Poultry Specialist, Texas A&M; University.

Websites

Authors

Prepared by Paul H. Patterson, professor of poultry science; Gregory P. Martin, extension educator in poultry; Lynn F. Kime, senior extension associate; and Jayson K. Harper, professor of agricultural economics.

This publication was developed by the Small-scale and Part-time Farming Project at Penn State with support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Extension Service.

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