Epithelium: The First Line of Defense

Health & Disease

August 19, 2019

Epithelial tissue, or skin, is an animal’s first line of defense against environmental challenges. It covers all exterior and interior surfaces of the body, like its cavities, tubes, organs and blood vessels, including the respiratory, reproductive, urogenital and gastrointestinal tracts.

Organisms and physical and chemical insults are constantly trying to breach the interior and exterior epithelial surfaces to compromise the tissue. When a breach occurs, it allows easy entry of foreign pathogens. Epithelial tissue establishes barriers that protect humans and animals from moisture, bacteria, viruses, yeasts, fungi, molds, mites, insects and mechanical insults.

Epithelial cells are “bound” or “stitched” together by complex protein structures called tight junctions. The role of these tight junctions is to hold the cells together. When tight junctions are weakened, it allows for bacteria, pathogens and toxins to be able to pass through the epithelial tissue and into the blood stream, which causes a broiler to become infected. Epithelial tissue must be constantly repaired and replaced, and the integrity of tight junctions must be maintained in order to protect against environmental challenges.

Performance Trace Minerals Help Strengthen Tight Junctions and Improve Epithelial Integrity

Trace minerals, like zinc and manganese, are critical for the production and maintenance of epithelial tissue. When Zinpro Performance Minerals^® are included in broiler chicken nutrition programs, rejuvenation of epithelial tissue and tight junctions occurs more quickly and efficiently and results in improved overall animal wellness and performance in broiler chickens.

To maintain a protective layer and cellular structure, epithelial cells contain a cytoskeleton matrix composed of keratin filaments or tightly-wrapped protein fibers. Keratin’s primary role is to make skin a pliable, insoluble and unreactive barrier against the natural environment. Zinc is a key mineral in the process of keratinization.

A summary of 30 studies showed an improvement in epithelial tissue strength by greater than 30 percent in poultry when supplemented with zinc, manganese or a combination of both from Zinpro Performance Minerals.

Performance Trace Minerals Help Manage Leaky Gut and Intestinal Inflammation

The lining of the gastrointestinal tract is comprised of a layer of epithelial cells, bound together by tight junctions. Their role is to prevent bacteria, pathogens and toxins from passing through the intestinal lining and into the blood stream. When the tight junctions become weakened, bacteria, pathogens and toxins are able to pass between the epithelial cells, which is a condition called leaky gut. This can be caused by heat stress, bacteria, feed contaminants or a zinc deficiency.

Leaky gut can result in cell damage or intestinal inflammation as a reaction of the immune system’s reaction. When inflammation occurs, the body’s immune system will require more nutrients to combat the challenge, leaving less nutrients available for performance including muscle growth in the animal. Supplementing poultry diets with zinc from Availa^®Zn can help manage inflammation by strengthening the bonds between the epithelial cells in the GI tract and maintaining tight junctions.

A summary of 23 trials showed intestinal strength was enhanced by more than 15 percent in poultry supplemented with zinc, manganese, or a combination of both from Zinpro Performance Minerals vs. poultry diets supplemented with inorganic (sulfate) forms of the same minerals.

Decreased Skin Scratches in Broilers

Exterior epithelial tissue, or skin, protects broilers from disease by acting as a physical barrier between the bird and its environment. When the skin of a bird is scratched, it is more susceptible to a bacterial infection that can impact the overall wellness of the bird and result in a carcass condemnation.

Skin is dependent on zinc to help protect against bacteria and physical damage. Research at Auburn University revealed that the proportion of skin lesions in poultry decreased from 42.7 percent to 9.6 percent in broilers fed zinc from Availa^®Zn instead of inorganic zinc sulfate. The proportion of broilers with cellulitis declined from 52 percent to 40 percent and the incidence of severe cellulitis declined from 20 to 8 percent in broilers fed zinc from Availa-Zn.

Research has shown that feeding zinc from Availa-Zn can improve broiler skin integrity by helping to reduce the incidence of sores, scabs, scratches and pododermatitis in chickens. This results in less potential for carcass condemnation and more meat to sell.

To learn about including performance trace minerals as a part of your poultry nutrition program to help reduce leaky gut, manage inflammation and strengthen poultry skin integrity, download the Poultry Skin: Barrier and Healing research summary or the “Epithelium: The First Line of Defense” white paper.

Synthetic Methionine and Organic Poultry Diets

Feed & Nutrition

Jim

August 19, 2019

Introduction

The use of synthetic amino acids in organic poultry diets is very controversial. Methionine is an essential sulfur-containing amino acid. Synthetic methionine is commonly added to conventional poultry diets, but is restricted in organic poultry diets.

Requirement

The protein requirement of animals is more accurately a requirement for the building blocks of protein known as amino acids. Once consumed, proteins are broken down into amino acids, and they are then absorbed by the animal to produce the specific proteins that they require. While all amino acids are important, some cannot be produced by animals and must therefore be supplied in the diet. The amino acids that cannot be produced by animals are referred to as essential amino acids. Methionine is one of the essential amino acids for poultry.

Methionine is a sulfur-containing amino acid that is essential for healthy and productive poultry, and is important for many different functions in the body. By producing methyl groups, methionine is responsible for a variety of metabolic reactions. It is also essential for cell proliferation and development.

There are two methionine requirements: one for maximal performance (i.e., maximum body weight gain or egg production), and a lower level needed for adequate but reduced growth or egg production while still raising a healthy, productive animal.

Deficiency

A methionine deficiency typically leads to poor feed conversion, retarded growth in meat birds, and reduced egg production in layers and breeders. Methionine is required to provide the building blocks for immune cells and tissues. This includes the nonspecific mechanisms such as the skin and mucosa, and the specific mechanisms that include T and B lymphocytes. This is particularly important for newly hatched chicks that are highly susceptible to infection during the first two weeks of life.

Methionine is a major component of feathers. Methionine and cysteine (another sulfur-containing amino acid that is not essential in the diet) are critical to feather formation. A deficiency of methionine results in poor feather growth and increased feather pecking. A methionine-deficient bird will tend to eat feathers in an attempt to obtain enough methionine. Feather pecking can quickly turn into cannibalistic behavior in a flock.

Organic standards

The National Organic Program rules (United States Department of Agriculture [USDA], 2000) initially stated that synthetic methionine was a prohibited material for animal diets. An exemption was given to allow the industry to find alternatives. As research continued in this area, the National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) later recommended that, until October 1, 2012, the use of synthetic methionine be restricted— originally to 4 pounds per ton for laying hens, 5 pounds per ton for broiler chickens, and 6 pounds per ton for turkeys and all other poultry. After October 1, 2012, the allowed levels were decreased to 2 pounds per ton for laying and broiler chickens, and 3 pounds per ton for turkeys and all other poultry.

§ 205.603 Synthetic substances allowed for use in organic livestock production. In accordance with restrictions specified in this section the following synthetic substances may be used in organic livestock production:

(d) As feed additives.

(1) DL-Methionine, DL-Methionine-hydroxy analog, and DL-Methionine-hydroxy analog calcium (CAS #’s 59-51-8, 583-91-5, 4857-44-7, and 922-50-9)—for use only in organic poultry production at the following maximum levels of synthetic methionine per ton of feed: Laying and broiler chickens—2 pounds; turkeys and all other poultry—3 pounds.

Sources of Methionine

Conventional poultry diets are typically corn and soybean meal based. Grains are typically low in lysine, and legumes (e.g., soybeans) are low in methionine. With this combination of feed ingredients, methionine is typically the first limiting amino acid. One way of meeting the methionine requirement is to feed excessive protein so that the daily intake of methionine is met. This results in an excess of nitrogen excretion and is not environmentally friendly. The use of synthetic methionine in poultry diets makes it possible to feed lower levels of dietary protein that still meet the daily methionine requirement.

Amino acids can exist in two forms referred to as D- or L-isomers. Methionine in tissues typically occurs in the L-form. Although the D-form is not biologically active, poultry have the ability to utilize both D- and L- forms. Methionine supplementation is typically in the form of dry D,L-methionine which is 99% pure, or as liquid D,L-methionine hydroxy analog-free acid which is the equivalent of 88% methionine after the conversion of the analog to the biologically active form.

It is important, however, not to focus entirely on methionine. In an effort to meet the methionine requirement, amino acid imbalances may occur. It is not just the level of methionine that is required but a balance of all the essential amino acids. Antagonisms have been shown to exist such as leucine-isoleucine-valine, arginine-lysine, and threonine-tryptophan.

There is some research to indicate that meat-chickens in the grower and finisher phase can obtain sufficient methionine while foraging pastures (Moritz et al., 2005). This would include the plant material consumed as well as any insects they can catch. However, obtaining significant methionine from pasture depends highly on forage composition and management, as well as environmental conditions, and may be more useful for small flocks than for large-scale organic poultry production.

The regulations for organic poultry production specify that poultry must have access to the outdoors, but they do not require that they have access to pasture. It may be very difficult to provide large poultry flocks with sufficient year-round access to quality pasture to meet their methionine requirement. The area of pasture recommended is 27 ft²/bird (8.23 m²/bird) (Mortiz et al., 2005). In addition, pasture quantity and quality differ significantly between seasons (Buchanan et al., 2007).

Research continues into ways to meet the methionine requirement of poultry without the use of synthetic methionine. This includes alternative ingredients as well as natural sources of methionine. The challenge of organic producers is to meet the methionine requirement of poultry without the use of synthetic methionine. As shown in Figure 1, animal protein such as fish meal is high in methionine, but producers who feed a vegetarian diet do not include any animal products.Too much fish meal can also give poultry products a fishy taste, and there are sustainability issues with overfishing. Corn gluten meal is another possible methionine-rich feed ingredient. However, organically produced corn gluten meal is not available,

Sesame hulls, a byproduct of sesame paste production, have been reported to be high in methionine (Farran et al., 2000). Its recommended use, however, is limited to 8% in broiler starter diets and 14% in layer diets. Organic sources of sesame hulls are currently not available in the United States. Sesame paste (also known as tahini) is widely used in cooking in many countries, and availability of the hulls may be higher in countries where it is produced.

It is important to keep in mind that even animal protein and high-quality plant protein contain only about 2% methionine, whereas D,L-methionine is 99% methionine. Producers of commercial organic poultry are likely to lose yield when synthetic methionine is banned and this may result in price increases to the consumer.

Figure 1. Methionine content of various feed ingredients. Figure credit: Jacquie Jacob, University of Kentucky

Another strategy that has been suggested is the use of slower-growing birds. While slow-growing meat chickens have less muscle than their fast-growing counterparts, research has shown that there are no differences in methionine requirements (Fanatico et al., 2009).

The use of choice feeding has also been studied as a means to meet the methionine requirements but has not been shown to be effective (Rack et al., 2009). This may have been due to the choice of ingredients used in the study and not the feeding method.

References and Citations

Agricultural Marketing Service—National Organic Program [Online]. United States Department of Agriculture. Available at: http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/ (verified 07 August 2012).
Buchanan, N. P., L. B. Kimbler, A. S. Parsons, G. E. Seidel, W. B. Bryan, E.E.D. Felton, and J. S. Moritz. 2007. The effects of nonstarch polysaccharide enzyme addition and dietary energy restriction on performance and carcass quality of organic broiler chickens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 16:1–12. (Available online at: http://japr.fass.org/content/16/1/1.full (verified 23 April, 2013).
Fanatico, A. C., C. M. Owens, and J. L. Emmert. 2009. Organic poultry production in the United States: Broilers. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 18:355–366. (Available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2008-00123 (verified 23 April, 2013).
Farran, M. T., N. G. Uwayjan, A.M.A. Miski, N. M. Akhard, and V. M. Ashkarian. 2000. Performance of broilers and layers fed graded levels of sesame hull. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 9:453–459. (Available online at: http://japr.fass.org/content/9/4/453.abstract (verified 23 April, 2013).
Moritz, J. S., A. S. Parsons, N. P. Buchanan, N. J. Baker, J. Jaczynski, O. J. Gekara and W. B. Bryan. 2005. Synthetic methionine and feed restriction effects on performance and meat quality of organically reared broiler chickens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 14:521–535. (Available online at: http://japr.fass.org/content/14/3/521.short (verified 23 April, 2013).
Rack, A. L., K.G.S. Lilly, K. R. Beaman, C. K. Gehring and J. S. Moritz. 2009. The effect of genotype, choice feeding, and season on organically reared broilers fed diets devoid of synthetic methionine. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 18:54–65. (Available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2008-00053 (verified 23 April, 2013).

Study Reports Use Of Antimicrobials In Broiler Chickens Has Fallen From 93% To 17%

Research

Jim

August 19, 2019

Source: US Poultry Assn news release

U.S. Poultry & Egg Association announces the release of the U.S. poultry industry’s first-ever report quantifying antimicrobial use on broiler chicken and turkey farms. The new report shows dramatic reductions of turkey and broiler chicken antimicrobial use over a five-year timeframe.

As part of its commitment to the transparency and sustainability of a safe food supply, the poultry industry aims to strike a balance between keeping poultry flocks healthy and the responsible use of antimicrobials, especially those medically important to human health.

Under the research direction of Dr. Randall Singer, DVM, PhD, of Mindwalk Consulting Group, LLC, this report represents a five-year set of data collected from 2013 to 2017 regarding the use of antimicrobials in U.S. broiler chickens and turkeys throughout their lifetime, from hatchery to day of harvest. It was prepared through a systematic collection of on-farm antimicrobial use data to capture the disease indications and routes of administration through which antimicrobials were given to the poultry.

Given several key differences among broiler chickens and turkeys – namely differences in weight, life span, susceptibility to lifetime illness and the number of effective medical therapies available – the data from broiler chickens and turkeys should neither be combined nor compared.

Key changes among broiler chickens over the five-year period show:
• Broiler chickens receiving antimicrobials in the hatchery decreased from 93% to 17%

• Hatchery gentamicin use decreased approximately 74%

• Medically important in-feed antimicrobial use in broiler chickens decreased by as much as 95%.

For example: tetracycline 95%, virginiamycin 60%

• Medically important water-soluble antimicrobial use in broiler chickens decreased by as much as 72%. For example: penicillin 21%, tetracycline 47%, sulfonamide 72%

• There was a documented shift to the use of antimicrobial drugs that are not considered medically important to humans (e.g., avilamycin and bacitracin BMD)
Key changes among turkeys over the five-year period show:

• Turkeys receiving antimicrobials in the hatchery decreased from 96% to 41%• Hatchery gentamicin use decreased approximately 42%

• Medically important in-feed antimicrobial use in turkeys decreased: tetracycline 67%

• Medically important water-soluble antimicrobial use decreased substantially.
For example:
penicillin 42%, tetracycline 28%, lincomycin 46%, neomycin 49%, erythromycin 65%

Antimicrobial use among broiler chickens and turkeys decreased dramatically between 2013 and 2017, and there are a couple of key explanations for this:

• Changes in FDA regulations, which were fully implemented in January 2017, effectively eliminated the use of medically important antimicrobials for production purposes and placed all medically important antimicrobials administered in the feed or water of poultry under veterinary supervision

• A continued focus by poultry companies on disease prevention, thereby reducing the need for antimicrobials

• Improved record-keeping of all antimicrobial administrations, which is a key component of antimicrobial stewardship

Furthermore, the broiler chicken and turkey industries have increased the production of animals raised without antimicrobials.

Participation in this effort was entirely voluntary. The poultry industry recognized the importance of this work and responded. The 2017 data in this report represent more than 7.5 billion chickens (about 90% of annual U.S. chicken production by the major companies on the WATT PoultryUSA list) and 160 million turkeys (about 80% of annual U.S. turkey production by the major companies on the WATT PoultryUSA list).

USPOULTRY Vice President of Research, Dr. John Glisson, DVM, MAM, PhD, affirms, “This research is the first step in determining how antimicrobials are used in the entire poultry production system of the U.S., and to succeed, we need participation from the majority of companies. We couldn’t be more pleased with the response of the poultry industry.”

Glisson cautions, though, that there are still serious bird illnesses (e.g., necrotic enteritis, gangrenous dermatitis and colibacillosis) for which the poultry industry has few effective interventions. And when birds get sick from these diseases, they must receive therapy. He confirms that “driving good antimicrobial stewardship in poultry, as opposed to simple documentation of reduced use, is our end goal for the best outcomes for both the people and the poultry.”

Moving forward in 2019, Dr. Singer will continue the annual collection of data from the broiler chicken and turkey industries and will begin collecting data from the U.S. table egg industry. Glisson anticipates this new data will provide greater clarity about antimicrobial use in individual flocks, stating, “We expect even more detailed data on flock antimicrobial usage and record-keeping in the years ahead, which thoroughly supports USPOULTRY efforts to ensure proper stewardship of medications.”

New method rapidly detects invisible dangers to food

Research

Jim

August 16, 2019

MU researchers’ biosensor can detect a small presence of salmonella in food in just hours

When food is recalled due to contamination from bacteria such as salmonella, one may wonder how a tainted product ended up on store shelves. New technology being developed at the University of Missouri could give retailers and regulators an earlier warning on dangers in food, improving public health and giving consumers peace of mind.

The biosensor provides a rapid way for producers to know if this invisible danger is present in both raw and ready-to-eat food before it reaches the store. Annually, more than 48 million people get sick from foodborne illnesses in America, such as salmonella, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

“Current tests used to determine positive cases of salmonella — for instance culturing samples and extracting DNA to detect pathogens — are accurate but may take anywhere from one to five days to produce results,” said Mahmoud Almasri, associate professor of electrical engineering and computer science at the MU College of Engineering. “With this new device, we can produce results in just a few hours.”

In this study, researchers focused on poultry products, such as chicken and turkey. The biosensor uses a specific fluid that is mixed with the food to detect the presence of bacteria, such as salmonella, along a food production line in both raw and ready-to-eat food. That way, producers can know within a few hours — typically the length of a worker’s shift — if their products are safe to send out for sale to consumers. The researchers believe their device will enhance a food production plant’s operational efficiency and decrease cost.

“Raw and processed food could potentially contain various levels of bacteria,” said Shuping Zhang, professor and director of the Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory at the MU College of Veterinary Medicine. “Our device will help control and verify that food products are safe for consumers to eat and hopefully decrease the amount of food recalls that happen.”

Researchers said the next step would be testing the biosensor in a commercial setting. Almasri said he believes people in the food processing industry would welcome this device to help make food safer.

The study, “A microfluidic based biosensor for rapid detection of Salmonella in food products,” was published in PLOS ONE, one of the world’s leading peer-reviewed journals focused on science and medicine. Other authors include Ibrahem Jasim, Zhenyu Shen, Lu Zhao at MU; and Majed Dweik at Lincoln University. Funding was provided by a partnership between MU, the Coulter Foundation and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agencies.

This study details the latest findings for this interdisciplinary team of researchers who have developed multiple biosensors and published results of their previous findings in Scientific Reports, Biosensors and Bioelectronics and Electrophoresis.

Energy Conservation – Poultry Farm Energy Use Evaluation Program

Jim

August 15, 2019

Energy expenditure is the second highest expense for the contract poultry producers after the house mortgages, and is continuously on the rise. Energy related retrofits on a broiler farm can be expensive, and poultry growers need help in the on-farm energy use assessment or audit in order to apply for financial assistance programs. The University of Arkansas Poultry Farm Energy Use Evaluation program conducts farm energy audits for contract poultry producers in Arkansas. For details of the program please contact Dr. Yi Liang (yliang@uark.edu, 479-575-4862).

How Much Electricity Are You Using?

Broiler farms use electricity to power ventilation fans, artificial lights and small motors for feeders, etc. It is important to know your current energy usage in order to evaluate the magnitude of any energy efficiency improvement. The amount of electricity used varied considerably among the producers (see figure 1 below). The amount of electricity used is converted to per unit weight of broiler produced. Farms raising heavier birds tend to incur higher annual electricity than those raising lighter birds. The types of light lamps greatly determine electricity consumption.

What is your electricity consumption?

To determine it, divide the total kWh used during a two year period (to account for any year-to-year fluctuation), by the pound of live weight produced over the two years. Then multiply by 1,000. The high variation shown in the following graph (range of 20 to 83 kWh/1,000 pound of broiler sold, with mean of 44) indicates that opportunities exist for a farm to cut down electricity consumption.

The most cost-effective measure to reduce the electrical consumption is to upgrade to energy efficient lamps.

Figure 1. Electrical use by selected Arkansas farms

How Much Fuel Are You Using?

Poultry farms in the southern United States use either liquid propane or natural gas to heat the houses. It is important to know your current energy usage in order to evaluate the magnitude of any reduction. The amount of fuel consumption varies by geographic location of the farms (see figure 2 below). Annual fuel consumption was higher on farms in northern counties than those in southern counties.

What is your fuel consumption? To determine it, divide the total gallon of propane or CCF (hundred cubic feet) of natural gas used during a two year period (to account for any year-to-year fluctuation), by the pound of live weight produced. Then multiply by 1,000. Again the high variation shown in the following graph (range of 2.0 to 10.5 gallon/1,000 pound of broiler sold, with mean of 5.8) indicates that opportunities exist for a farm to cut down fuel consumption. Common measures that could reduce cost of heating include tightening and increasing insulation of the barns, installing circulation fans, etc.

Figure 2. Fuel use by selected Arkansas farms

Resources for Energy Efficiency Improvement

Estimating Fuel Savings by Ceiling Fans Installation

Making Poultry Litter Safe for Re-Use

Production & Management

Jim

August 14, 2019

The poultry industry is the largest animal agricultural industry in Louisiana and is second only to forestry in total income produced by all agricultural commodities. Louisiana poultry growers produce almost 1 billion pounds of broiler meat each year. The size of the poultry industry in Louisiana has raised concerns about the management of large quantities of litter (mixture of poultry manure and bedding material).

Investigations in Midwestern states and more recently in Louisiana have determined that mismanagement and misuse of animal wastes from confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs), such as feedlots, dairy farms or poultry farms, can contribute to water pollution. Thus, the industry is becoming more environmentally conscious about how this poultry litter is used and handled. In fact, most poultry producers re-use poultry litter from the previous production cycle to help defray production costs and reduce the amount of litter produced.

Improved poultry litter management for reduced nutrient and pathogen contamination of water resources is a key issue affecting Louisiana and other poultry-producing states. Increasing the cost effectiveness of poultry production is also an important goal of poultry producers nationwide. Reduction of potential nutrient loss (for example, nitrogen and phosphorus) during water runoff from soils to which litter is applied and reduction of pathogenic organisms in litter, either stored or land-applied, would reduce environmental pressures placed on poultry producers.

Composting has been used successfully for many years to transform raw manures and other forms of organic matter, including poultry litter, to materials suitable for use as soil amendments. Heat generated during composting (self-heating) kills pathogenic microorganisms. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has approved a process, which relies on self-heating during composting, to further reduce pathogens (PFRP) in sewage sludge (biosolids) under the 40CFR.503 regulations (503 rule).

The premise of the 503 rule is that biosolids composted at temperatures exceeding 131 degrees F for 72 hours should have significantly reduced pathogenic microorganisms, making the end product safer to the public and suitable for land application. Additionally, heating and high pH levels that occur during the composting of biosolids reduce the odorous nature of the materials by increasing gaseous emissions, such as ammonia and sulfide gasses. Thus, the self-heating of poultry litter can kill Salmonella, Escherechia coli, Clostridium, Campylobacter, Staphylococus aureus and other microorganisms pathogenic to humans and poultry.

Therefore, with invaluable cooperation and assistance from poultry producers in northern Louisiana parishes, LSU AgCenter personnel have evaluated methods of in-house pasteurization (using composting technology) of broiler litter through demonstration trials conducted in commercial poultry houses. The objectives were to determine:

1) the minimal broiler litter moisture content for adequate self-heating for PFRP,
2) the effects of self-heating on pathogen reduction in re-used litter, and
3) the effect of in-house pasteurization on nutrient content of litter.

Preliminary Work

LSU AgCenter scientists conducted preliminary testing on poultry litter at the W.A. Callegari Environmental Center to determine the minimum moisture required to achieve 131 degrees F before beginning full demonstration trials. This testing was performed by wetting dried poultry litter to specific moisture contents, compacting the litter in well-insulated flasks, inserting a digital thermometer capable of measuring and recording maximum temperatures, and allowing the litter to undergo pasteurization in the flasks until a maximum temperature had been observed.

The litter used in these trials was from the fourth production cycle. It was determined that approximately 31 percent moisture in poultry litter was the minimum moisture required to generate PFRP temperatures in three replicate Dewar flasks. However, higher moisture levels produced temperatures over 131 degrees F and also were considered for use in demonstration trials. However, to minimize the potential effects of excess moisture after the trials ended, a maximum of 35 percent moisture was expected to be used in on-farm trials.

Window Treatments

Typical poultry production cycles last from six to eight weeks, with seven to 10 days between cycles. Each demonstration trial was conducted between production cycles (after birds were removed from the houses and before the placement of a new flock). After flocks of broilers were harvested, poultry growers typically removed the compacted, high-moisture sub-layer of litter (cake) before performing demonstration trials. The interiors of the houses were often pressure-washed to remove excessive dust build-up. Using tractors and operators supplied by poultry growers and an extended-width blade, two litter windrows were formed in each poultry house. The windrows ran the full length of the houses (400 to 600 feet) and were approximately 2 feet high and 4 feet wide.

In the first trials the litter remained in the windrows for the full seven to 10 days before being redistributed over the floor of the houses. To achieve the minimum moisture required to generate PFRP temperatures, some litter required the addition of water to windrow surfaces or to the litter before windrowing, while others relied on ambient moisture levels. These trials were designed to determine the effect of moisture on heating necessary for PFRP and to determine if added moisture could be reduced or not used at all. Too much moisture in the bedding could potentially be harmful to young birds placed in the house. During more recent trials, litter was windrowed for a period adequate to achieve PFRP (72 hours) and then redistributed in houses.

Analyses and Monitoring

In the on-farm demonstration trials, samples were taken from the litter immediately after windrowing and after pasteurizing. Several trials were repeated in the same broiler houses to collect information about application of in-house pasteurization over several broiler flocks. Also, the effects of litter accumulation on potential increases in nutrients and pathogenic microorganisms over time were evaluated.

Litter temperatures were obtained at six-inch and 12-inch depths using digital thermometers capable of recording the maximum, minimum and current temperatures in the building and in the litter. These thermometers allowed detection of the day and time when PFRP temperatures were first achieved. Daily litter temperatures were recorded. The maximum and minimum temperatures and the date and the time of occurrence were recorded, too.

Chemical and physical analyses of litter samples were performed at the Callegari center. Nutrient analyses included total and plant available nitrogen (N), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnes-ium (Mg) and sulfur (S). Sample pH, electrical conductivity (soluble salts), moisture and the ash content (soil and inherent minerals) of litter were analyzed and used to determine the effects of composting on poultry litter. Microbiological analyses were performed in private environmental laboratories.

Effects of Pasteurization on Plant Nutrients

The accumulation of nutrients in poultry litter pasteurized over successive production cycles has been of interest to scientists and producers alike because of environmental concerns of land application of litter. Results from the analysis of litter from successive production cycles in houses on two farms participating in the pasteurization trials indicated that the average ash content increased 5 percent over the pasteurization period. Although small decreases in total nutrient contents were observed, the increase in plant-available nutrient contents was not great.

Composting of organic matter releases large concentrations of nutrients that may be measured as soluble salts. However, decreased nutrient availability is usually only observed in materials composted for many months. Availability of nutrients was expected to increase during the short periods of in-house pasteurization for these trials. As expected, the average soluble salt concentrations did increase by 25 percent during pasteurization. A large fraction of the total nutrients are in plant-available form. After the short period of pasteurization, the percentage of total N as ammonium (NH3-N), K, Mg, Ca and Na in plant-available forms in poultry litter were reduced. However, plant-available P and S increased.

Effects of Pasteurization on Pathogens

The litter was analyzed for total anaerobic count for pathogens at the beginning and at the end of each demonstration trial to verify that the pathogen content was reduced due to the litter heat. In demonstration trials, the total anaerobic count for pathogens, measured as colony-forming units per gram, was reduced by approximately 90 percent or more.

Summary

This method of in-house pasteurization of broiler litter provides an opportunity for poultry producers to confidently re-use litter from previous flocks of broilers. The ultimate result would be a reduction in the number of times litter would need to be removed from the houses (once a year or every two years as opposed to multiple times in one year) as well as a reduction in the quantity of litter produced in Louisiana each year.

Big Dutchman Announces new Canadian dealer J. Dean Williamson Ltd.

Poultry Equipment

Jim

August 13, 2019

“The type of partnership we’ve been dreaming of…”

Steve Walcott, Vice President of Egg Production Sales for Big Dutchman North America, recently announced the addition of J. Dean Williamson Ltd. as a new authorized layer equipment dealer for Canada.

J. Dean Williamson Ltd. (www.jdwpoultry.com) began in 1973 and has been faithfully serving customers for over 45 years. Located in London, Ontario, Williamson will primarily focus on selling Big Dutchman rearing, enriched colony, and cage-free systems for laying hens.

“Well positioned as the premier poultry industry equipment provider in Canada, J. Dean Williamson Ltd.’s reputation both in terms of product selection and service were key in our decision to team up with them to sell our layer housing equipment,” said Walcott. Walcott continued, “The good folks at J. Dean Williamson continuously strive to be the service and support supplier of choice for poultry farmers. We are excited to have them represent us to the Canadian market, their business model is a perfect match to what Big Dutchman expects in an equipment dealer.”

“Our team is looking forward to offering Big Dutchman’s industry-leading layer housing systems. Their solutions are high quality which matches our other product lines, and they offer an extremely unique advantage with the dedicated support of aviary specialists – a huge selling point. This is the type of partnership we’ve been dreaming of,” JD Williamson stated.

Canadian egg producers can contact J. Dean Williamson Ltd. for sales, service and parts needs beginning immediately at +1-519-657-5231 or jd@jdwpoultry.com.

Management tips to maximize male fertility

Genetics & Breeding

Jim

August 13, 2019

The role of males in poultry breeding is extremely important. Each male is responsible for fertilizing 10 or more females. Each hen produces at least 140 chicks at 60 weeks of age, so that each male is responsible for producing at least 1,400 day-old chicks.

Our geneticists select for better feed conversion and robust health to reduce broiler production cost. This advance also benefits parent stock males, which are now using feed ever more efficiently and are better able to withstand challenges.

The rearing period

Cobb males, for example, have an excellent appetite, which helps them to grow efficiently from the fi rst few weeks. This is essential for good development of the internal organs, immune system and skeletal frame but, most importantly, the reproductive Sertoli cells responsible for fertility. Sertoli cells start to develop as early as two weeks and are essential for sperm formation later. Weight, protein and calorie intake are essential for their proper development.

Control of frame size is as important as bodyweight control to prevent males becoming very big later. Select males as early as first week, with another selection at three to four weeks to maintain a high level of uniformity (>90%).

Ensure a good skeleton frame with long shank length in the first four weeks. Fleshing is better controlled later and very small males can be culled. Fleshing Score should be 3 at this stage. After 10-11 weeks of age the skeletal development is almost complete and select males into homogenous groups for bodyweight and frame. From 10 weeks males should be reared at a density of 3-4 males/m2 for an optimal development. At this stage a fleshing score of 2-2.5 is required.

“Control of frame size is as important as bodyweight control to prevent males becoming very big later. Select males as early as first week, with another selection at three to four weeks to maintain uniformity”

From 18 weeks the males must start to show red combs, and start crowing. If not, they are behind, probably due to over restriction on feed or very low light intensity. But we also don’t want the males to be sexually maturing earlier than females.

We need to achieve sexual synchronization. Focus on the feed levels from 17-27 weeks – this is when you can make or break a flock. Feed a low crude protein male diet (12%-14%), with adequate weekly Increments, to control bodyweight and breast development.

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Testes growth is very rapid once light stimulation begins. Some mature sperm is formed, but the male is still not sexually mature. Management now can have a dramatic impact on early and peak hatchability. You need to achieve the weekly bodyweight gain in the first four weeks after light stimulation. Ensure that bodyweight profile is parallel to standard between 20-29 weeks to ensure optimal testicular growth, especially at 24 weeks. This is when male fertility is determined.

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The top 25% parent stock performer in the region showed the following bodyweight profile after 20 weeks:

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In general, you can mix males as early as 20 weeks but when males are more sexually mature than females, mix only 5% males and assess receptiveness of females after one week.

A normal mating ratio of 8.5% males is sufficient to achieve up to 95% fertility. Good sexual synchronization is extremely important. Starting flocks on an 8% ratio for males through 25-30 weeks and then going up to 9% seems to boost early fertility and lower hen mortality. Generally, if the weight differential exceeds 40%, female receptivity will be disrupted resulting in reduced mating efficiency. Then you may need to place fewer males (ie 7% ratio) to prevent male aggression, topping up to 8.5% after two weeks. The quality of the males is important as some flocks have only 5% males at the end of production, yet still with excellent fertility.If males are still overaggressive, keep the same and reassess after one week.

The laying period

Ensure that males find water immediately after transport so they don’t become dehydrated and lose condition. Adopt the sex separate feeding.

Cobb males consume feed efficiently. They may access the female feeders, too, after mixing. Keep an eye on the male bodyweight profiles to prevent overgrowth.

With sex separate feeding, males need to identify their specific feeders, so keep the same type of male feeder in rearing and production.

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Transfer in three to seven days according to feeder type, as shown in the table.

Poor dietary management and stress can lead to a regression of the male reproductive system and decreased fertility. A reduction of 4 to 10% in feed consumption can result in lower sperm production.

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7 Levers of Poultry Gut Health for Antibiotic Reduction Success

Health & Disease

Jim

August 12, 2019

Source: Biomin

Poultry producers all aim to deliver their product, be it meat or eggs, in a way that is acceptable to consumers while being economically sustainable. The use of antibiotic growth promoters in poultry production systems has met increasing resistance from consumers and has thus prompted antibiotic-free production systems.

Simply removing antibiotics from a production system will lead to problems with bird health, mortality and product quality because of contamination or infections in the flock. However, there are several alternative management practices that can be used to prevent and eliminate such risks. Figure 1 below illustrates some potential sources of contamination on poultry farms. Improving biosecurity can dramatically reduce and even eliminate these sources.

Figure 1. Potential sources of contamination on poultry farms

Potential sources of contamination on poultry farms

Another consideration before starting an antibiotic free system is the quality of the day-old chicks used at the beginning of the production cycle. If the quality of the chick arriving on to the farm is compromised, antibiotics will be required to ensure the chicks survive.

Many antibiotic treatments have been, and still are being used to maintain intestinal health thereby ensuring efficient productivity. This can be achieved through low-level antibiotic inclusion for growth promotion, or in therapeutic doses to control disease. Either way, maintaining a healthy gut is the desired outcome. Most threats to gut health stem from outside the body. These are illustrated in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Threats to poultry gut health

Threats to poultry gut health

BIOSECURITY

Improvements in biosecurity at breeder farms and in the hatchery, result in very low bacteria numbers in the intestinal tract of chicks. And on farm, increasingly high standards of hygiene prevent the chicks being exposed to commensal bacteria. Therefore, the development of a healthy gut microflora in these chicks is more difficult and takes longer, jeopardizing production efficiencies. Probiotic supplements (PoultryStar^®) administered at hatching and in the first days of life can overcome this shortfall in immune development.

WATER HYGIENE

A chicken will drink approximately two to three times the amount of water compared to the amount of food it eats, which reinforces the importance of this often forgotten nutrient. In developing countries, some poultry production farms rely on water from a well or bore hole to supply the houses. Contaminated water can be a major vector for the introduction of pathogenic bacteria into the house. The risks of coliform contamination in water from untreated sources is understood and management techniques should be employed to minimize such risk. Thorough cleaning of water lines and the addition of liquid acidifiers such as Biotronic^® to maintain a low pH are two such techniques.

FEED HYGIENE

Some feed ingredients have a higher risk of carrying contamination than others, particularly in the case of salmonella. However, poor handling and storage practices could result in any ingredient becoming contaminated. Heat treatment through conditioning or pelleting can be used to positive effect on feed hygiene, however the results of these processes are not residual and the feed can become re-contaminated if poor handling and storage practices continue. Application of an acid mix product (e.g. Biotronic^® Top3, or Top liquid) to the feed can overcome the risk of contamination to a reasonable degree, provided that sufficient product is used to meet the challenge. Applying the minimum amount of product will not prevent contamination if the risk is high.

FEED FORMULATION

Anti-nutritional agents can either be naturally present in the raw materials (e.g. non-starch polysaccharides in wheat) or through the incomplete heat treatments (e.g. trypsin inhibitors in soy bean meal). Such anti-nutritional agents can be avoided through close quality control of raw materials, and by using specific enzymes to neutralise them. Watch this video on how proper nutrition can reduce gut stress, and consequently allow for the reduction of antibiotic use, featuring Ellen van Eerden, researcher at Schothorst Feed Research.

DIGESTIBILITY

Reduced digestibility of feed results in undigested nutrients passing to the hindgut where they can be utilised by pathogenic bacteria to develop, causing problems including clostridium perfringens and even necrotic enteritis. To help enhance the digestibility of feed, phytogenic products (e.g. Digestrom^®) can be added. A recent survey carried out by BIOMIN revealed that the main reasons for including phytogenic products are improved feed efficiency and better microbial modulation. These two factors work synergistically as though the endogenous enzyme secretions of the small intestine were increased. More digestion by the animal means fewer nutrients available to the bacteria in the hind gut, resulting in a natural modulation of the bacterial populations.

MYCOTOXINS

Mycotoxins are present in all raw materials at differing levels depending on a variety of environmental and management factors. The most commonly occurring mycotoxins are fumonisins, of which trichothocenes and zearalenone are the most common. The BIOMIN Mycotoxin Survey regularly identified deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FUM) as the most common mycotoxins contaminating feedstuffs and raw materials in thousands of tests carried out globally. DON and FUM are known to have detrimental effects on gut integrity through various mechanisms. (Read How Mycotoxins Aggravate Coccidiosis in Poultry). Therefore, regular monitoring of the mycotoxin levels in raw materials and finished feeds is advisable. The inclusion of a suitable mycotoxin deactivator (Mycofix^®) at the correct inclusion levels will help to manage any potential contamination.

COCCIDIOSIS

In some countries, ionophore coccidiostats are not permitted in diets if the producer wants to achieve antibiotic-free status. In such cases, vaccination with anti-coccidial vaccines is practiced. Research has shown that where vaccines are used, synbiotic products (PoultryStar^®) can enhance the anti-coccidial effects of the vaccines.

Recap

As seen, there are several levers of gut health that need to be considered, monitored and managed by the poultry producer. But there are also several feed additives that can be used to overcome these challenges. The feed additives offered by BIOMIN all complement each other and work together to facilitate antibiotic-free production.

Raising Replacement Pullets for Small-scale Egg-production Enterprises

Research

Jim

August 12, 2019

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Introduction

Poultry producers who raise their own replace-ment pullets have better control over the growth, condition, and development of the flock. The qual-ity of the pullet flock will have a direct effect on the subsequent level of egg production. The two most important quality factors for a replacement flock are proper body weight and uniformity. Pullet weight at 6 weeks of age has been shown to influence subsequent egg production. Once the pullets start to lay, it is too late to solve problems from poor nutrition or management during the pullet-rearing period.

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