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Omega-3 feeding program significantly improves skeletal strength in young pullets

By
Jim
-

O&T Farms Ltd. (Regina SK), in collaboration with the University of Guelph, initiated a series of research projects focused on developmental programming in both broiler and pullet breeding stock, starting in 2017. The purpose of the research was to determine the effects of feeding omega-3 fatty acids to breeder birds on reproductive efficiency, embryonic survival, as well as the epigenetic influence on progeny performance, development and overall health.

One stage of this research aimed to evaluate the impacts of maternal and post-hatch feeding of omega-3 fatty acids on skeletal development in pullets. To test this, the University of Guelph designed a trial in which LinPRO® , a dry-extruded flaxseed-based omega-3 feed ingredient produced by O&T Farms, was included in either the maternal diet, the post-hatch diet, or both. Reza Akbari, a PhD candidate working on the project, presented preliminary data at the Animal Nutrition Conference of Canada (ANCC) in Niagara Falls, Ontario (May 15th, 2019), that suggest the maternal feeding of linPRO can significantly improve skeletal strength in young pullets by nearly 22% compared to the control.

“The results demonstrated effectiveness of maternal and post-hatch feeding of omega-3 fatty acid in support of skeletal strength in young pullets which can greatly reduce poor egg shell quality and skeletal maladies seen in laying hens across all housing types.” said Dr. Elijah Kiarie, Assistant Professor in Poultry Nutrition at the University of Guelph, who led the research. “The potential of omega-3 fatty acids in stimulating bone, brain, and immune cells development at embryonic through to early phases of the chick’s life could significantly improve productivity and welfare.”

O&T Farms manufactures several highly digestible and stable omega-3 animal feed ingredients under the brand name LinPRO® ; blending flaxseed, and pulses through their patented dry-extrusion process. LinPRO®, is non-GMO and also available under certified organic labels.

Time to Feed Your Breeders

By
Jim
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Table of Contents

  1. Growing birds
  2. Adult Breeders
  3. Conclusion

What is the optimum time of day to feed growing and adult hens and roosters? As with most questions, the answer is “it depends” and this situation certainly applies to feeding breeders. For growing birds the variables are ability to observe feeding behavior, and potential effects of heat stress. With adult birds we have the added factors of eggshell quality and conflict of time associated with mating or nesting.

Growing birds

For growing birds, feed is eaten in a very short period of time (30 minutes – 2 hrs depending upon age and frequency of feeding) and so choice of feeding time has little real effect on other daily activities. In fact feeding and drinking are the major activities of the immature bird. Most producers will feed growing pullets and roosters early in the morning, especially in warm or hot climates. Digested feed is not utilized with 100% efficiency, and a by-product of such inefficiency is heat production in the birds body. In most situations this extra heat (sometimes called heat of metabolism, specific dynamic action, or heat increment), peaks about 4-6 hours after feed is eaten. Because of the restricted feeding program, feeding time is short and predictable, and so the heat of metabolism will consistently peak 4-6 hrs after feeding time. In hot climates peak environmental heat load occurs in the early afternoon, and so there is a distinct disadvantage to having extra heat generated in the birds body at this time. For this reason we have the common practice of feeding birds at 6-7 am. With such early morning feeding, the heat load of nutrient metabolism occurs before the early afternoon daily high temperature. Alternatively, growing birds could be fed in late afternoon or early evening. However this latter situation does not work well with short-daylengths for growing birds.

With mechanical feeders there is a tendency to feed birds even earlier, sometimes at daylight or when artificial lights are switched on. There are two disadvantages to very early morning feeding. Firstly feeding often occurs before staff are present to observe feeding activity and bird distribution. Under these conditions it is impossible to know if feed is being evenly distributed and if all birds have access to the feed. The second problem, which becomes more acute as birds get older, is the condition of choking, which occurs with a small percentage of older birds, especially on every-day feeding. This problem can often be resolved by switching on drinkers for at least on hour before feed is available. This is obviously impossible to accomplish if birds are mechanically fed at first daylight or when artificial lights are switched on – pullets seldom drink in the dark period. The ideal feeding time for growing pullets and roosters therefore is early morning, when staff can observe feeding behaviour, and after birds have had access to water for up to 1 hour.

Adult breeders

Choice of feeding time of adult breeders can influence the production of settable eggs, eggshell quality, fertility and hatch of fertiles. In most instances these factors are a consequence of feeding activity displacing other important daily routines, such as nesting and mating. Breeder hens consume their feed in 2-6 hours each day. This large variation in feed clean-up time relates to diet energy level, feed texture and perhaps most importantly, environmental temperature. In hot climates breeders often take much longer to eat feed, and this is especially true of high-yield strains. Most managers consider this extended feeding time to be advantageous, because it ensures more even allocation of feed across the flock where even the most timid birds have time to eat.

If breeders are fed early in the morning, then most intense feeding activity will be over by 9 a.m. Again this is ideal in terms of reducing heat load in the early afternoon period. This timing is also ideal in terms of differentiating the main feeding time from nesting activity. Depending upon when lights are switched on in the morning, most eggs are laid in the 9 am – 12 noon period. Feeding at, say 8 am, would, therefore, induce birds to feed at a time when they are usually in the nests. In fact eggs dropped in the area of the feeder are a very good indication of late-morning feeding. Obviously some of these eggs will get broken or become too dirty for setting.

A few years ago there was interest in feeding breeders in the late afternoon. The main advantage is claimed to be an improvement in eggshell thickness, and in fact in many field trials this is found to be true. Improved shell thickness is likely a consequence of the bird eating calcium at a time when shell calcification is starting (for the next days egg) and also the bird having more feed (with calcium) in its crop when lights are switched off. If eggshell quality (thickness) is a problem, then afternoon feeding seems a viable option. Alternatively, birds could be given a “scratch” feed of large particle limestone or oystershell in the late afternoon.

However, late afternoon feeding has a number of potential disadvantages. Firstly there is increase in shell thickness. This should not be a problem as long as incubation setter conditions are adjusted so as to maintain normal moisture loss. In most situations this means reduction in setter humidity to account for less moisture loss through a thicker shell.

A greater concern with later afternoon feeding is potential loss of mating activity, and increase in incidence of body-checked eggs. Mating activity is usually greatest in late afternoon. If hens are more interested in feeding at this time, then there can be reduced mating activity and also more aggression between males. Body-checked eggs are characterized by a distinct band of thickened shell around the middle of the egg (sometimes called belted eggs). This defect is caused by the eggshell breaking during its early manufacture in the birds uterus. The bird repairs the crack, but does so imperfectly. Such eggs have reduced air and moisture transfer characteristics, and usually fail to hatch. The most common cause of body-checked eggs is sudden activity, movement, stress etc. on the bird. This extra activity takes place when feed is given in late afternoon, and so there will likely be fewer settable eggs produced.

Conclusions

Early morning feeding in breeders is usually recommended because all associated factors and consequences of this practice are positive for the bird and the production of settable eggs. The only concern is with mechanical feeders where there is a temptation to feed too early in the morning, and before staff are present to observe bird activity.

For more information:
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Innovative layer genetics to handle global challenges in egg production

By
Jim
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ABSTRACT

1. In commercial layer breeding, extensive gene pools are tested and selected for market requirements which must be anticipated at least 5 years ahead. Field results confirm a continuous positive genetic trend in egg output and better feed efficiency which can be converted into land savings.

2. Animal welfare and cage-free housing dominate future needs of the market. Nesting behaviour and minimal tendency to develop feather-pecking or cannibalism without beak treatment are key trait complexes. Stronger shells for longer production cycles without moulting have to be combined with better bones.

3. No single big gene effect can be expected to control the multifactorial problem of feather-pecking. Adjusting the shape of the beak, with a heritability of .10–.25, can contribute to reducing the risk of severe cannibalism.

4. For better skeletal integrity, the assessment of bone quality in pedigree birds housed in enriched cages is done by keel bone palpation or ultrasound measurement of the humerus. Both traits show similar heritabilities in the range of .15–.30 and can be included in a balanced selection approach for performance, quality and welfare traits.

5. The combination of performance testing and genome-wide DNA marker analysis is a promising tool to generate more progress for a balanced performance and behaviour profile.

KEYWORDS: Balanced selection, layer breeding, production efficiency, genetic trend, bone quality, welfare

Introduction

Today’s population of more than 7 billion will grow steadily and by 2050, this will reach about 9 billion. In order to feed the growing human population, the production of food will have to be more efficient in terms of utilizing the limited resources that we have. We have to produce large amounts of high quality protein with affordable prices to cover the growing demand. Production systems need to be environmentally friendly, socially responsible and economically viable. Selective breeding of farm animals can make a major contribution to this global challenge.The demand for eggs is at a level of 75 million tonnes with an annual increase of 1 million tonnes each year. To satisfy the increasing demands, at least 50 million hens will have to be added each year, assuming management conditions to support the genetic potential for 20 kg egg mass per hen, i.e. from 20 to 76 weeks of age. Current per capita egg consumption and the rate of change differ considerably between continents and countries within continents, depending on traditions, purchasing power and the ability of other sources of food. Europe and North America have little growth potential, while the demand in countries like China, India, Latin America and certain countries in Africa is expected to grow considerably, especially due to changing consumer habits of educated urban people with the necessary purchasing power.

Consumer habits and preferences for specific egg characteristics like shell colour and egg size also differ between countries and between consumers within a country. Japan, for example, has maintained one of the highest levels of consumption with more than 300 eggs per capita for decades. The custom of breaking a raw egg over a bowl of rice for breakfast helps to explain the focus on egg quality: white-shelled eggs with superior internal egg quality and guaranteed freedom from Salmonella. White eggs are also preferred in North and Central America, the Middle East, India, Taiwan and the Philippines, whereas brown eggs are preferred in most of Latin America, Europe and China. Tinted eggs, produced from crosses between White Leghorns and brown-egg breeds, are popular in Japan and China, but seldom seen in Europe.

The layer breeding industry has gone through significant changes during the past decades and has a remarkable record of coping with new challenges. Increased egg production, improved feed efficiency and adaptation of egg quality to consumer preferences have contributed significantly to the success of the poultry industry. Without these genetic improvements and corresponding improvement of nutrition, disease control and general farm management, the poultry industry would not have achieved its current position in the global food market. While the focus has to remain on maximizing the genetic potential for producing high quality protein at competitive cost, additional requirements of the egg industry, changing consumer habits and public opinion have to be taken into account.

General layout of layer breeding

Primary breeders have to look beyond current requirements and anticipate changing needs and opportunities at least 5 years into the future. Close communication between breeders and distributors is necessary to introduce new varieties at the right time to benefit from growing niche markets. For the global layer business, diverse markets have to be served and each of these may prefer different performance profiles of the commercial layers. This requires extensive gene pools with large elite lines which can be combined to generate strain crosses with specific attributes to meet market needs as closely as possible. Maintaining and developing new lines, testing, selection and reproduction of primary stocks involve high fixed costs in the operation and require superior skills in quantitative genetics as well as internal organization to keep track of the availability of different sub-lines for niche markets. Genetic development, marketing and technical support have to communicate closely with local distributors to provide the best possible service for the current market and to benefit from changing requirements. Major challenges for the layer industries are constantly high feed prices and animal welfare that is gaining more importance not only in Europe but also in North America.

Geneticists must anticipate at least 5 years ahead as to what the market trends will be like as well as consumer orientation. When alternative husbandry and organic egg production were introduced some years ago, no one believed that these would someday become dominant market trends. At the time when the prospect of a prohibition of beak treatment was outlined, no one would have ever imagined that it would actually happen in several European countries. The same goes for male chicks, whose culling will be prohibited and replaced by determining sex in the egg. In fact, European legislation forbidding any kind of amputation to animals has been in place for a long time now. In the next 5 years, for example, the determination of sex in the egg will be a reality, or even the demand for layer nutrition where only non-genetically modified (GM) raw materials and ingredients are to be used in the formulation.

Future selection goals are geared towards extending the production period and increasing the number of saleable eggs per hen, improving shell quality and hen liveability with consistent feather cover until the end of lay. Stronger shells for longer cycles without moulting have to be combined with better bones. Bone strength and breakage can be a major issue in cage-free environments. Also, environmental enrichment with perches can be a challenge for the skeletal integrity and bone lesions.

Housing systems vary between continents and within Europe. In Switzerland, Austria, Sweden and Germany, commercial layer cages have been banned for several years. Enriched cages, considered by poultry scientists as an acceptable compromise between the demands of animal welfare organizations and the ‘needs’ of laying hens, are installed in Europe as an alternative to conventional battery cages. Retailers and animal welfare groups in different countries continue to lobby for a complete ban on cages in Europe. Even in North America, a change from cage systems to aviary systems is most likely within the next decade.

To supply the best possible combination for each market with specified optimal egg weight and most common housing system, every breeding company has to offer different strain crosses, which are all selected with focus on efficient egg production, but with different emphasis on individual selection traits. For line improvement, pure-line and cross-line hens are tested in different environments: in single, small group and family cages as well as under floor conditions with a new kind of ‘trap-nesting’. The majority of single bird cages are enriched with perches, nests and scratching areas with the aim of creating a testing system which is as close as possible to future housing systems with more floor space and several enrichments. Daily egg production is recorded with the aid of barcode readers; various egg quality traits (mainly egg weight, shell strength, shell colour and internal egg quality) and plumage condition are recorded on a sample basis across the production cycle. Individual feed intake and daily egg mass are determined at peak production, i.e. during the time of maximum performance, so that selection for improved efficiency reflects the capacity for sufficient feed intake at a time of greatest nutrient demand.

Testing under floor conditions with trap-nesting to measure individual egg production and egg quality was practiced in the breeding program of Lohmann Tierzucht until about 1970, but was replaced by more efficient single cage and group cage testing. Almost 10 years ago, testing individual performance in floor systems was resumed, using a specially adapted transponder technique and the Weihenstephan Funnel Nest Box (Icken et al. 2012 Icken, W., D. Cavero, M. Schmutz, and R. Preisinger. 2012. “New Phenotypes for New Breeding Goals in Layers.” World’s Poultry Science Journal 68: 387–400. doi:10.1017/S0043933912000505.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], , [Google Scholar]) to obtain individual information on egg production, nest acceptance and utilization of outdoor facilities (winter garden or free-range). The data are used in family selection for ‘number of saleable nest eggs’, penalizing families with poor nest acceptance which tend to produce floor eggs. The moderate heritability of ‘nest eggs’ recorded in these floor systems suggests that further progress can be made. However, egg producers should not expect miracles from genetic selection and must pay proper attention to rearing conditions, a timely transfer to the production house and optimal nest arrangement to minimize the number of displaced eggs. Critical are also an adequate lighting regime adjusted feed formulation and feeding.

For the foreseeable future, we can safely assume that general breeding goals such as egg number, feed efficiency and egg quality traits will remain priorities. Behaviour patterns and especially behaviour anomalies are likely to get more attention outside the Western world. Suitability for floor housing and free-range systems has become more important, and this includes attention to a whole range of traits: acceptance of nests and free-range, persistent plumage cover to the end of lay, resistance to common diseases and minimal tendency to develop feather-pecking or cannibalism. National laws and regulations will reflect continuing attempts to define priorities and ‘sustainability’ in terms of adequate nutrition for the growing human population, protection of the environment and natural resources, ethical standards for animal farming, and – last but not least – economics.

Genetic trends

Continuous improvement in egg production per hen housed is the most important selection criterion in layer breeding. Field results have confirmed the genetic trend. An annual increase of about two to three eggs per year in a 13-month production cycle can be expected (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Recent genetic trend in egg output (field results).

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At the same time, feed efficiency has improved considerably. When breeding companies established a system for individual feed recording, body weight of brown layers and daily feed intake were reduced. Today, an optimum body weight for white and brown layers is achieved. After 2012, the improvement in feed efficiency, as shown in Figure 2, is mainly driven by a stable maintenance requirement and constant daily feed intake. Improved egg mass output is the major driver for a further improvement in feed efficiency.

Figure 2. Recent genetic trends in feed efficiency (field results – kg feed/kg egg mass output).

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From a global perspective on the sustainability and efficiency of egg production in the last 20 years, we can deduce that there has been an improvement of about 0.45 kg less feed per kg egg mass produced (Figure 3). When the savings in feed are converted into resource saving in different countries and regions, we can estimate a saving of 57 000 tonnes of feed which is equivalent to 8 million hectares of land over the last 20 years of egg production for the global commercial layer population (Table 1).

Table 1. Savings of feed and land in different parts of the world from better feed efficiency in the last 20 years.

Figure 3. Trend in sustainability and feed efficiency in egg production, from a global perspective.

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Changing expectations of consumers in terms of animal-friendly housing systems have put pressure on retailers. The United States alone, according to the United Egg Producers, has to convert up to 190 million hens from cage to cage-free production. A change in housing system will cause an increase in production costs of 14–28% due to higher space requirements, higher feed intake, increased mortality and more downgraded eggs. However, with new housing systems and a small flock size, an even better egg output per hen can be achieved compared with old, large and multiple age complexes. Flock records in Figure 4 can be used as a typical example for the genetic potential realized in cage-free environments. Persistency in lay is one of the major drivers for further improvements in egg production in all housing systems.

Figure 4. Comparison in egg production between stand-alone cage-free houses and multiple age cage-housing (LSL-Lite in USA).

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Genetic potential

In order to get a better and more detailed overview about the performance of each individual hen within a flock, a special recording system was established. A total of 1613 hens with similar genetic background were tested individually over a period of 82 production weeks (21–102 weeks of age). In the 574 production days, 56% of all the hens reached the target of 500 saleable eggs with a range of 515–574 d to produce them. The maximum clutch size was up to 400 d without any breaks in between. Despite a very long clutch length of the majority of the birds, there was still a significant number of hens producing less than 400 eggs while others produced 100 or 150 eggs more at the same time (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Distribution of the cumulative egg numbers in 574 production days.

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If we look into more details of daily egg production, as demonstrated in Table 2, we can see a typical pattern of clutches interrupted by a break of 1 or 2 d without an egg. Clutch length does not follow a very strict pattern. In the second half of the production cycles, clutches were shorter without an extended increase in the length of the pause.

Table 2. Egg numbers presented in laying sequences (clutch size) for a recording period of 515 days in a hen laying at a rate of egg production of 97%

Animal behaviour

Over decades, in all parts of the world, beak trimming has been used to prevent feather-pecking in poultry. Feather-pecking is caused by a number of factors and no single big gene effect can be expected to control this multifactorial problem (Figure 6). Increasing ethical reservations have caused a ban on beak-trimming, including the infrared treatment, even on day-old chicks in the hatchery. Since 1 July 2016, a ban on beak treatment was introduced for 80 million hens under the auditing system of KAT (‘Kontrollierte Alternative Haltung’ – Controlled Alternative Husbandry) in Germany. Branded eggs from Germany, The Netherlands, Austria, Italy and France with the quality label of KAT represent about 80 million hens in Europe. There is a high probability that other countries and/or marketing organizations will follow this trend.

Figure 6. Factors which can cause feather-pecking and cannibalism in layers.

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An indirect approach to reduce the risk of feather-pecking and cannibalism can be done by means of manipulating the shape of the beak by genetic selection. However, before a new trait can be introduced to a commercial breeding programme, the trait has to be measured with high accuracy and the heritability has to be estimated. Repeated measurements on the same individuals can increase the reliability and power of selection. Progeny testing is also an option to increase the number of records and the power of selection; however, progeny testing is very costly and time consuming.

A special device was developed to measure beak shape in terms of the extension of the upper beak beyond the lower beak in pedigreed hens and to evaluate the usefulness of this criterion as an additional selection criterion to reduce feather-pecking. The working hypothesis was that birds with blunt beaks should be less inclined or less successful in pulling feathers from group mates or starting cannibalistic behaviour.

The heritability estimates for beak shape at 45 weeks of age range from 0.13 to 0.25 and from 0.09 to 0.26 for 4 lines each of the Lohmann Brown and LSL breeding programs, respectively. These genetic parameters and the high variability of the trait suggest that a reduction of beak length through genetic selection should be feasible. The heritabilities are at a similar level as for traits like plumage condition or persistency of egg production (Icken et al. 2017 Icken, W., D. Cavero, and M. Schmutz. 2017. “Selection on Beak Shape to Reduce Feather Pecking in Laying Hens.” Lohmann Information 51 (1): 22–27. [Google Scholar]) (Table 3).

Table 3. Heritability for beak length in LSL and Lohmann Brown pure lines.

As shown in Figure 7, the special device to measure the upper beak length gives a good indicator for the shape of the beak and the length of the hook.

Figure 7. Measuring the upper beak length.

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Bone quality

With an increased production cycle length, skeletal integrity and bone fracture in layers are gaining more importance. Bone strength and shell strength are competing characteristics with housing system and animal nutrition affecting these traits in addition to genetics (Bishop et al. 2000 Bishop, S., R. Fleming, H. Mccormack, D. Flock, and C. Whitehead. 2000. “Inheritance of Bone Characteristics Affecting Osteoporosis in Laying Hens.” British Poultry Science 41: 33–40. doi:10.1080/00071660086376.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®], , [Google Scholar]; Fleming et al. 2006 Fleming, R., H. Mccormack, L. Mcteir, and C. Whitehead. 2006. “Relationships between Genetic, Environmental and Nutritional Factors Influencing Osteoporosis in Laying Hens.” British Poultry Science 47: 742–755. doi:10.1080/00071660601077949.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®], , [Google Scholar]). Measuring bone characteristics retrospectively after the breeding hens are slaughtered at the end of the laying period cannot be implemented efficiently in a commercial breeding programme. This means that excessive numbers of progeny have to be produced and selected on the bone characteristics of their dams.

A viable alternative for genetic selection should be based on the assessment of bone quality of the selection candidate itself. The method must be fast and accurate to screen all selection candidates for quality. Two different options have been used to score the bone quality in adult leghorn pedigree hens. Birds were housed in enriched single bird cages with a perch, nest box and a scratching area. A subjective human scoring of keel bone deformation was performed on a scale from 1 to 3 (Anderson et al. 2017 Andersson, B., W. Icken, D. Cavero, F. Kaufmann, and M. Schmutz 2017. “Different methodologies to genetically improve the robustness of bones in layers.” In Proceedings of the 10th European Symposium on Poultry Genetics, St. Malo, France, June 26-28, edited by C. Bostvironnoi, C. Lessire, M. Tixier-Boichard,  97 p. WPSA French Branch. http://wpsa.fr/congres/EuropeanPoutryGenetics/Index%20ESPG.html [Google Scholar]) for almost 6000 hens. Keel bone palpation was done at 46 and 70 weeks of age. Ultrasound measurement of the humerus was taken at 64 weeks of age. Both traits show reasonable heritabilities with a small advantage for the male line. Keel bone assessment can be done much faster compared with ultrasound examination, showing similar heritabilities (Table 4). Future studies have to show which traits reflect the risk of bone breakage better. It can already be concluded, at this stage, that phenotypic recording of bone quality in live birds can contribute to better bone quality when it is included in the selection index. Both traits are available during selection and will be part of the balanced selection approach in commercial layers. An additional and major step forward, in bone quality, can be achieved if genetic markers for osteoporosis would be available for selection (Dunn et al. 2007 Dunn, I., R. Fleming, H. Mccormack, D. Morrice, D. Burt, R. Preisinger, and C. Whitehead. 2007. “A QTL for Osteoporosis Detected in an F2 Population Derived from White Leghorn Chicken Lines Divergently Selected for Bone Index.” Animal Genetics 38: 45–49. doi:10.1111/age.2007.38.issue-1.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®], , [Google Scholar]).

Table 4. Heritability for keel bone examination and ultrasound examination of the humerus in LSL pure lines.

Conclusion

Primary breeders will continue to invest in additional testing capacities which reflect typical field conditions in different markets. At the same time, the genetic basis of the elite lines will be expanded to accommodate the demand of growing markets, which in turn will minimize the rate of inbreeding and the risk of losing valuable genetic variation. A special programme to match selected males and females at the pedigree level assures that inbreeding effects are minimized and genetic progress continues at a predictable rate.

Advances in molecular biology have contributed to new techniques for selection. Using informative genetic markers, geneticists can identify individuals and families with special characteristics early in life and thereby accelerate improvements in egg production, egg quality, behaviour and liveability. These innovations complement traditional performance testing and evaluation methods based on phenotypic selection indexes of production, efficiency and quality parameters.

Combining all available performance records from relatives in several generations, locations and housing systems requires powerful computer programs, but assures that the best males and females are selected and mated to generate the next generation. Additional information based on DNA analysis is combined with traditional breeding values to select males at an earlier age and to differentiate among full brothers, which used to have identical breeding values from sib testing before DNA information became available. The combination of performance testing as described above and genome-wide analysis is a promising tool for developing new strain crosses with a performance profile tailored to specific requirements.

The current rate of genetic progress for total efficiency of egg production appears to be even greater than it was 20 years ago. An improved structure and increased size of breeding populations, the application of new testing and recording technologies and more powerful computer systems for breeding value estimation have contributed to more efficient use of existing genetic variation. The application of high throughput DNA screening using dense genome-wide Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) markers is very valuable for selective breeding by so-called ‘genomic selection’. In genomic selection, the focus is not to estimate the effect of some specific genomic regions, but to use the combined effects of thousands of genome-wide SNP markers to estimate the breeding values of the pure-line chickens more reliably in both sexes. In the future, when costs for commercially available SNP chips would be further reduced, genomic selection will play an even greater role in improving the rate of genetic progress for layers used in conventional and non-cage environments. All selection candidates can be screened even in the rearing period before any phenotypic data are available.

Finally, we should realize that increased genetic potential needs to be ‘translated’ into reality in commercial practice. Disease control, farm management and nutrition have to keep pace with genetic improvements, and more efficient production is no guarantee for a sustainable farm income should the markets be oversupplied.

In the coming years, the prosperity of the egg industry will be driven by genetic progress and adjusted husbandry systems. Animal welfare will play a major role. Key indicators will be general liveability, good feather cover until the end of the production cycle and strong bones.

Breeders have to focus on a balanced breeding goal to cover the demand of the growing human population for high quality protein.

Accurate data recording in different environments, combined with genomic data, will make selection faster and more accurate, and enhance progress in persistency in rate of lay and late shell quality. The ultimate target will be increased cycle length in order to boost lifetime egg production per hen housed.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

References

  • Andersson, B., W. Icken, D. Cavero, F. Kaufmann, and M. Schmutz 2017. “Different methodologies to genetically improve the robustness of bones in layers.” In Proceedings of the 10th European Symposium on Poultry Genetics, St. Malo, France, June 26-28, edited by C. Bostvironnoi, C. Lessire, M. Tixier-Boichard,  97 p. WPSA French Branch. http://wpsa.fr/congres/EuropeanPoutryGenetics/Index%20ESPG.html
    [Google Scholar]
  • Bishop, S., R. Fleming, H. Mccormack, D. Flock, and C. Whitehead. 2000. “Inheritance of Bone Characteristics Affecting Osteoporosis in Laying Hens.” British Poultry Science 41: 33–40. doi:10.1080/00071660086376.
    [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]

    ,

    , [Google Scholar]
  • Dunn, I., R. Fleming, H. Mccormack, D. Morrice, D. Burt, R. Preisinger, and C. Whitehead. 2007. “A QTL for Osteoporosis Detected in an F2 Population Derived from White Leghorn Chicken Lines Divergently Selected for Bone Index.” Animal Genetics 38: 45–49. doi:10.1111/age.2007.38.issue-1.
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®]

    ,

    , [Google Scholar]
  • Fleming, R., H. Mccormack, L. Mcteir, and C. Whitehead. 2006. “Relationships between Genetic, Environmental and Nutritional Factors Influencing Osteoporosis in Laying Hens.” British Poultry Science 47: 742–755. doi:10.1080/00071660601077949.
    [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]

    ,

    , [Google Scholar]
  • Icken, W., D. Cavero, and M. Schmutz. 2017. “Selection on Beak Shape to Reduce Feather Pecking in Laying Hens.” Lohmann Information 51 (1): 22–27.
    [Google Scholar]
  • Icken, W., D. Cavero, M. Schmutz, and R. Preisinger. 2012. “New Phenotypes for New Breeding Goals in Layers.” World’s Poultry Science Journal 68: 387–400. doi:10.1017/S0043933912000505.
    [Crossref], [Web of Science ®]

    ,

    , [Google Scholar]

Heat Stress Management Critical in Poultry Production

By
Jim
-

Heat stress can contribute to many production challenges and can be costly for poultry producers. During heat stress, birds eat less than they should as a way to reduce their body temperature, leading to a reduction in metabolizable energy consumption. The detrimental effects of heat stress on broilers and laying hens range from reduced growth and egg production to decreased meat and egg quality and wellness.

The productive life for poultry is much shorter than other animals: about 47 days for broiler chickens and as little as one year for layer hens. For this reason, there is a much smaller margin for error in heat stress management than in larger animals because there is less time to recover.

Production challenges from heat stress can be seen during a bird’s first week of life because young chicks do not fully develop the ability to regulate their body temperature. The digestive tract shows signs of weakness and accelerates the transit of food, resulting in a considerable reduction in digestion and absorption of nutrients.

How Do Chickens Dissipate Body Heat?

Unlike other animals, birds do not have sweat glands to help with heat loss. There are four main ways in which birds remove excess body heat: radiation, conduction, convection and, when those three ways aren’t enough, by evaporation.

Radiation is when the bird transfers heat from the surface of its skin, through the air, to another object, including other birds. This is where high flock densities become a challenge during the hot summer months.

Birds dissipate body heat by conduction by transferring heat to cooler objects with which they come in contact, such as feeders, slats or water from sprinklers. That, too, can become a challenge since sprinklers increase humidity, increasing the thermal sensation from the heat.

Convection occurs when wind comes in contact with the skin and carries the heat away. Chickens often raise their wings to expose lightly feathered skin and increase the surface area for body heat dissipation.

When a bird’s body temperature reaches 106° F (41° C), the efficiency of radiation, conduction and convection is reduced, and evaporation of water from the respiratory tract from panting becomes their main mechanism of heat loss. Evaporationof one gram of water is capable of dissipating 540 calories of maintenance energy. In addition, the birds’ nasal cavities work by filtering dust and bacteria from the air entering the respiratory tract. Using the respiratory system for evaporative heat loss can lead to an increased incidence of second bacterial infections. Eventually, without relief from the heat, birds will often tire from heat exhaustion.

Heat Stress in Poultry Leads to Inflammation

When feed intake is reduced during heat stress, birds will also have reduced blood flow in the gastrointestinal tract, which leads to a reduction in the amount of oxygen (hypoxia) and oxidative stress in the intestinal tissues. As a result, the tight junctions that hold those epithelial cells (enterocytes) together weaken, increasing permeability and allowing pathogens and their toxins to enter the gastrointestinal tract. This is a condition called leaky gut and can result in chronic inflammation. This inflammation will trigger the immune system to consume significant levels of nutrients to deal with the inflammation, reducing the amount of nutrients available for muscle growth or egg production.

Heat Stress Impacts Eggshell Formation

When chickens pant, they lose CO2 through respiration, which causes the pH of the blood to become more alkaline and reduces the amount of ionized calcium in the blood, which can lead to bone problems.

For laying hens, since they require a high amount of calcium for eggshell formation, it often results in the development of thin-shelled or smaller eggs and/or a decrease in egg production. For broilers, producers will often see an additional decrease in feed intake, feeding efficiency and growth rate.

Performance Trace Mineral Nutrition for Heat Stress Management

Managing the production challenges related to heat stress in poultry production can be mitigated by adjusting your poultry nutrition program. Major changes to the diet in the summer months should always focus on reducing oxidative stress, preserving the integrity of epithelial tissues in the gastrointestinal tract and increasing heat tolerance.

Major nutritional changes poultry producers and nutritionists should consider during the hot summer months include the following:

  • Feeding a more nutrient-dense diet, to compensate for feed intake reduction
  • Including performance trace minerals in the diets, to increase antioxidant capacity and thermal tolerance of bird organism.

Reducing Oxidative Stress, Increasing Thermal Tolerance

During the hot summer months, the use of performance trace minerals is crucial. The most important antioxidant systems in the animal organism depend on zinc, manganese, copper and selenium. They serve as molecule cofactors and for enzyme activation, such as the SOD (Superoxide dismutase) system and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Oxidative stress occurs when free radicals and antioxidants are out of balance. These antioxidant systems work by removing free radicals and protecting cell membranes from oxidative stress.

Zinc also plays an essential role in the formation of structural components of tissues, molecules and epithelial cells present in the intestine. Research show that feeding zinc from Availa®Zn strengthens the bonds between the epithelial cells in the gastrointestinal tract, helping maintain tight junctions during a challenge and decreasing the occurrence of leaky gut related intestinal inflammation.

Chromium from Availa®Cr or MICROPLEX® can increase thermal tolerance as it helps to reduce the level of corticosterone — involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions and stress responses — in poultry. Elevated levels of corticosterone cause animals to behave in a hectic manner, expend energy and, ultimately, reduce feed intake. Lowering corticosterone levels with Availa-Cr or MICROPLEX can help keep animals calm and keep them more willing to eat during heat stress events.

Heat stress can result in production challenges that are costly for poultry producers. Including performance trace minerals in your poultry nutrition program, you can help mitigate these challenges and make your operation more profitable.

Contact a Zinpro representative today to learn more about including Zinpro Performance Minerals®, like Availa®Cr, MICROPLEX®, Availa®Zn, Availa®Mn, Availa®Cu and Availa®Se into your livestock and poultry nutrition programs.

Note: Not all products are available in all markets.

Okanagan Hatchery Opens with Jamesway Equipment

By
Jim
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On May 29th, Okanagan Hatchery celebrated the Grand Opening of their beautiful new hatchery in the gorgeous Okanagan Valley in Armstrong, British Columbia. Jamesway’s Sales Director, Ken Long, attended the ceremony and was greatly impressed on his tour of the wonderful facility. Ken was pleased to congratulate owners Ron and Murdie Pollon on their state-of-the-art facility and to present them with a plaque recognizing this momentous occasion. The new hatchery has eighteen Platinum2 P60 Incubators and six Platinum2 P40 Hatchers. They will hatch four days a week which will net them over 17 million chicks per year.

This is phase one of a two-phased project planning to double its capacity. Expecting their first hatch mid-summer, Ron and Murdie were thrilled to see the hatchery completed. Mr. Long said, “the enthusiasm and passion these men have for the industry and this project makes it very fulfilling to be involved with.

Research points to new methods for poultry wastewater treatment

By
Jim
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USPOULTRY and the USPOULTRY Foundation announced the completion of a funded research project at the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas, in which researchers found new methods for poultry wastewater treatment.

The research was made possible in part by an endowing Foundation gift from Pilgrim’s and is part of the Association’s comprehensive research programme encompassing all phases of poultry and egg production and processing. A brief summary of the completed project is shown below. A complete report, along with information on other Association research, may be obtained by going to USPOULTRY’s website. The project summary is as follows.

Project #F076: A Single Step Poultry Wastewater Remediation for In Situ Recovery of Potable Water and Value-Added Products by Dr Gibum Kwon, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.

In a recently completed research project, Dr Gibum Kwon at the University of Kansas Center for Research found that new innovative technologies could be applied to the treatment of poultry processing plant wastewater. Smart membranes were developed to continuously separate oil and water mixtures, and other processes were used to recover value-added products. This technology shows promise for improving poultry wastewater treatment.

The research summary can be found on the USPOULTRY website. Information on other Association research may also be obtained by visiting the USPOULTRY website.

Feed Granulometry and the Importance of Feed Particle Size in Layers

By
Jim
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Download the complete report

INTRODUCTION

Feed particle size is an often-overlooked aspect of poultry production. Producers should not assume that feed is of a uniform size and homogeneously mixed, or that the feed mill is providing the ideal mix of particles in a ration. Feed particles range in size from very fine to coarse, and different grinding methods will result in different particle size distributions. Differences in particle size within a ration can affect both the digestive system and the performance of the bird, even if the overall nutrient values are similar. Producers, therefore, should frequently evaluate feed particle size distribution and be mindful of the many variables that can affect it.

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Common external parasites of poultry

By
Jim
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A number of parasites attack poultry by either sucking blood or feeding on the skin, feathers, or scales on the skin. Continuous ex-ternal parasites are those that spend all of their adult life on their host. Temporary parasites feed on but do not live on their host.

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Mountaire acquires new grain storage facility in Dover

By
Jim
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The sixth largest chicken processor in the country has purchased a new grain storage facility in Kent County.

Mountaire Farms recently announced the purchase of the Cartanza Grain Facility on Little Creek Road in Dover.

The Cartanza facility is Mountaire’s sixth grain storage facility in Delaware and it’s second in Kent County.

Mountaire’s director of Agribusiness Adam Downes says the purchase was made in an effort to use 100% local corn in their chicken feed.

“Here on the Eastern Shore, Maryland, Delaware, Eastern Shore Virginia, the farmers grow about 91 million bushels of corn, per USDA numbers. We use about 32 million bushels of corn per year here on the shore”, Downes said.

The facility, which was built in 1977, has been a mainstay in the Kent County Agriculture community and Mountaire is hoping to build upon that heritage.

“As of May 31st we’re taking over that facility and looking forward to continuing their legacy, and servicing the farmers in that area, and buying all that local grain,” Downes added.

The Cartanza facility has a one million bushel capacity and a grain dryer, which prevents spoilage.

Cobb New Zealand Pure-Line Facility Delivers First Shipment

By
Jim
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: After three years of planning and construction, Cobb New Zealand delivered its first grandparent (GP) shipment on May 21, 2019. The delivery marks a significant expansion for Cobb in the Asia-Pacific region and helps protect the security of supply for the whole region.

Cobb delivered the GP package to Bromley Park Hatcheries Group, a New Zealand family-owned business that produces and sells high-quality chicks. Bromley Park Hatcheries Group, which has distributed Cobb breeding stock for nearly 30 years, operates in Waikato and Christchurch.

“Today, we received the first GP shipment from Cobb New Zealand,” said Brent Williams, general manager of operations at Bromley Park Hatcheries Group. “As a loyal Cobb distributor since 1990, we are pleased to embark on a new journey with Cobb.”

Located in Rotongaro, North Island, the Cobb New Zealand project broke ground in October 2017. The pure-line facility aims to serve as a hub for the delivery of breeding stocks to Asia. New Zealand’s reputation for hygiene and absence of avian diseases makes its products accessible to most countries around the world.

“This first delivery marks the beginning of unprecedented product availability for our Asia-Pacific customers and showcases our commitment to serving customers around the globe,” said Fred Kao, general manager of Cobb Asia-Pacific. “This advancement wouldn’t have been possible without our team members who worked tirelessly to make it happen and we greatly appreciate their efforts.”

Home to 4.4 billion people, Asia is expected to grow its population by another 20% by 2050. Rising incomes and stable economies are driving the growth of protein consumption in the region. In 2019, chicken meat is expected to overtake pork as the world’s number one consumed protein due to low cost of production from superior feed conversion.

“I’m proud of our team that got us where we are today and excited for what is to come as we continue to grow in our operations,” said Jimmy Chand, general manager of Cobb New Zealand. “We’re incredibly grateful to everyone in the community who has supported our business from day one.”

Cobb New Zealand currently employs 80 team members, many of whom are from the local communities. The company strives to integrate into local communities through employment and philanthropic activities.

ABOUT COBB-VANTRESS, INC.
Cobb-Vantress, Inc. makes quality protein accessible, healthy and affordable worldwide. Our research and technology innovates the global poultry industry. With headquarters in Siloam Springs, Arkansas, we are the world’s oldest pedigree broiler breeding company. We distribute poultry to more than 120 countries. Find more at cobb-vantress.com.

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